1 Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food for more than half of the global population, making its cultivation critical for food security worldwide. However, the increasing global population and the challenges posed by climate change necessitate the development and implementation of high-yield strategies in rice cultivation. Rice cultivation faces several productivity constraints, including water scarcity, nutrient management issues, and the need for sustainable agricultural practices. Traditional flooded rice cultivation methods are water-intensive and may not be sustainable in regions facing water shortages (Abdou et al., 2021; Midya et al., 2021; Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Additionally, improper nutrient management can lead to suboptimal yields and environmental degradation (Zhang et al., 2018; Ladha et al., 2021). The need for innovative approaches to address these constraints is critical for maintaining and increasing rice productivity.

The primary challenges in rice cultivation include water management, nutrient use efficiency, and the adaptation to climate change. Water scarcity is a significant issue, particularly in semi-arid regions, where traditional flooding methods are not feasible (Abdou et al., 2021; Midya et al., 2021; Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). High nitrogen fertilization and integrated crop management practices have shown promise in improving yield and water productivity under deficit irrigation conditions (Zhang et al., 2018; Abdou et al., 2021). Moreover, the development of drought-tolerant rice varieties and the adoption of water-saving irrigation techniques, such as alternate wetting and drying, are essential for enhancing rice yields in water-limited environments (Midya et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2021).

This study reviews the latest agronomic practices and innovations that have been shown to improve rice yields, and identifies and evaluates the effectiveness of various high-yield strategies, including improved irrigation techniques, nutrient management practices, and genetic interventions; describe the economic and environmental impacts of these approaches and assess their potential for wider adoption. The aim of this study is to provide recommendations for future research and policy directions to support sustainable intensification of rice farming.

2 Fundamentals of Rice Yield Determinants

2.1 Genetic potential and yield traits

The genetic potential of rice is a primary determinant of its yield, influenced by various morphological and physiological traits. Key yield traits include grain weight, grain number per panicle, and effective tiller number, which are regulated by nutrient use efficiency and photosynthetic efficiency (Figure 1) (Li et al., 2021). Advances in molecular breeding have significantly contributed to understanding these traits, enabling the development of high-yielding rice varieties (Nutan et al., 2020; Ma, 2024). Additionally, phytohormones such as gibberellins, cytokinins, and brassinosteroids play crucial roles in regulating plant height, grain number, and leaf erectness, which are essential for optimizing yield. Genetic manipulation of these hormone pathways has shown promise in enhancing rice yield potential.

2.2 Environmental factors impacting yield

Environmental factors, including climate change, water availability, and soil fertility, significantly impact rice yield. Climate change poses a threat to rice production by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, which can lead to yield reductions (Nutan et al., 2020). For instance, yield potential in the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River has declined due to climate change, necessitating adjustments in agronomic practices to mitigate these effects. Water stress is a major limiting factor in many rice-growing regions, and optimizing irrigation practices is crucial for maintaining high yields (Zhang et al., 2019). Additionally, environmental stresses such as drought and salinity adversely affect rice yield, highlighting the need for developing stress-tolerant varieties (Nutan et al., 2020).

2.3 Role of agronomic practices in yield optimization

Agronomic practices play a vital role in optimizing rice yield by enhancing both genetic potential and environmental adaptability. Improved crop management techniques, such as site-specific nitrogen management and alternate wetting and drying irrigation, have been shown to significantly increase rice yields. For example, in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, improved high-yielding cultivation practices resulted in a 26.8% increase in rice yield compared to local farmer practices (Li et al., 2012). Optimized management practices, including appropriate water and fertilizer management and dense planting, have also been effective in enhancing grain yield and nitrogen use efficiency in super hybrid rice (Deng et al., 2022). Furthermore, regular cultivar replacement and continuous adjustment of management practices have sustained high annual rice production in intensive cropping systems (Ladha et al., 2021). These findings underscore the importance of integrating agronomic improvements with genetic advancements to achieve sustainable rice yield gains (Li et al., 2019).

3 Soil Management for High-Yield Rice Cultivation

3.1 Soil fertility and nutrient management

Effective soil fertility and nutrient management are crucial for achieving high rice yields. Integrated nutrient management (INM) practices, which combine organic and inorganic fertilizers, have been shown to enhance soil fertility and rice productivity. For instance, the application of poultry manure (PM) and vermicompost (VC) along with recommended doses of inorganic fertilizers significantly improved nutrient uptake and use efficiency, leading to higher grain yields and better soil fertility (Urmi et al., 2022). Similarly, long-term studies have demonstrated that partial replacement of mineral fertilizers with organic matter, such as crop residues, can maintain rice yields and improve soil organic carbon and total nitrogen content (Chen et al., 2021). These practices not only sustain soil fertility but also enhance the agronomic efficiency and yield stability of rice crops.

3.2 Use of organic and inorganic fertilizers

The combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers is a sustainable approach to rice cultivation. Studies have shown that integrating cattle manure (CM) or poultry manure with chemical fertilizers can significantly improve rice yield and soil properties. For example, the application of CM or PM with inorganic fertilizers increased grain yield, soil organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon compared to the use of chemical fertilizers alone (Iqbal et al., 2019; Paramesh et al., 2023). Additionally, the use of organic amendments such as spent mushroom compost, green manure, and rice straw in combination with NPK fertilizers has been found to enhance soil pH, cation exchange capacity, and available phosphorus, leading to higher rice yields (Mi et al., 2018). These findings highlight the importance of balanced fertilization strategies that incorporate both organic and inorganic sources to optimize nutrient availability and improve soil health.

3.3 Soil pH and structure optimization

Optimizing soil pH and structure is essential for maximizing rice yield. The application of organic manures, such as cattle manure, has been shown to significantly increase soil pH and cation exchange capacity, while reducing exchangeable acidity and aluminum concentrations (Mi et al., 2018). This improvement in soil chemical properties creates a more favorable environment for rice growth. Furthermore, the addition of organic matter, such as poultry manure and vermicompost, has been found to decrease soil bulk density and enhance soil physical properties, which are critical for root development and nutrient uptake (Urmi et al., 2022). These practices not only improve soil structure but also contribute to better water retention and aeration, ultimately supporting higher rice productivity.

4 Water Management Techniques

4.1 Irrigation methods for yield optimization

Irrigation methods play a crucial role in optimizing rice yield. Various techniques have been explored to enhance water use efficiency and maintain or increase rice productivity. One such method is the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), which involves keeping rice fields moist but unflooded during the vegetative stage and maintaining shallow flooding during the post-vegetative stage. This method has been shown to significantly improve root growth, photosynthesis, and grain yield, resulting in a 58% higher grain yield with 16% less water compared to conventional methods (Thakur et al., 2018). Another effective technique is alternate wetting and drying (AWD), which has been found to save 40%~44% of water while maintaining similar grain yields to continuous flooding (CF) (Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Additionally, deficit irrigation combined with higher nitrogen fertilization has been shown to save 50%~60% of irrigation water compared to traditional flooding systems, while still increasing grain and straw yields (Abdou et al., 2021). Drip irrigation under plastic film mulching is another innovative method that has been used to improve water use efficiency and yield in arid areas (Figure 2) (Zhao et al., 2023).

4.2 Water use efficiency and conservation

Improving water use efficiency (WUE) is essential for sustainable rice cultivation, especially in regions facing water scarcity. AWD has been demonstrated to significantly enhance water productivity, with studies showing a 68% increase in water productivity compared to CF (Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Similarly, SRI practices have been shown to produce more grain per unit of water applied, with water productivity reaching 6.3 kg ha-mm^-1 compared to 3.3 kg ha-mm^-1 under conventional management practices (Thakur et al., 2018). Controlled irrigation, another water-saving technique, has been found to reduce water input by 17% while maintaining high rice yields and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) (Cao et al., 2020). Additionally, integrating water management with optimized nitrogen application can further enhance WUE and reduce environmental impacts. For instance, coupling AWD with appropriate nitrogen management has been shown to improve NUE and reduce nitrogen loss (Sun et al., 2012; Qiu et al., 2022).

4.3 Effects of water stress on yield

Water stress can have significant adverse effects on rice yield, but certain agronomic practices can mitigate these effects. Higher nitrogen fertilization has been shown to alleviate the negative impacts of water stress on lowland rice, resulting in increased growth, water status, and yield under deficit irrigation conditions (Abdou et al., 2021). However, severe water stress, such as that experienced under dry cultivation, can lead to substantial yield reductions. For example, dry cultivation has been associated with an average 21.25% reduction in rice yield (Qiu et al., 2022). On the other hand, moderate water stress, managed through techniques like AWD, can maintain or even improve yield while conserving water. Studies have shown that AWD can maintain similar grain yields to CF while saving significant amounts of water (Atwill et al., 2018; Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Additionally, optimizing water and nitrogen management under drip irrigation has been shown to improve photosynthetic performance and nitrogen metabolism, leading to higher yields even under limited water conditions (Zhao et al., 2023).

5 Planting and Crop Management Practices

5.1 High-yield planting density and spacing

High-yield planting density and spacing are critical factors in rice cultivation that significantly influence crop productivity. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has demonstrated that wider spacing, such as 20 × 20 cm, can enhance root growth, leaf number, tiller and panicle number, and overall grain yield by 40% compared to conventional practices. However, excessively wide spacing, such as 30 × 30 cm, can reduce yield due to lower plant population density (Thakur et al., 2010). In direct-seeded rice (DSR), a higher seeding rate of 50~60 kg ha^-1 and narrow row spacing of 15~25 cm have been found to reduce weed biomass by approximately 50% without compromising yield, making it a desirable practice under weedy conditions (Dass et al., 2016).

5.2 Seed selection and sowing techniques

Seed selection and sowing techniques are pivotal in achieving high rice yields. The choice of cultivar, seedling vigor, and early establishment are essential for competitive growth against weeds and pests (Dass et al., 2016). In the Mediterranean region, late sowing under organic management has been shown to increase initial plant density, enhancing competition with weeds and ensuring sufficient panicle numbers at harvest (Delmotte et al., 2011). Additionally, innovative sowing techniques such as dry direct seeding and water seeding have emerged as labor-saving and water-efficient alternatives to traditional transplanting, although they require effective weed management to prevent yield losses (Jehangir et al., 2021).

5.3 Weed and pest management

Weed and pest management are crucial for maintaining high rice yields (Huang, 2024). Weeds can cause significant yield losses, up to 70%~80% in direct-seeded rice if not managed properly. Herbicidal weed management is widely adopted, but ecological approaches such as using weed-competitive cultivars, altering seed rates, and planting patterns can reduce herbicide use and environmental impact (Dass et al., 2016). In water-seeded rice, herbicides like Penoxulam have proven effective in reducing weed density and dry matter by over 90%, significantly minimizing yield losses due to weeds (Jehangir et al., 2021). Additionally, integrated crop management practices, including optimized nutrient management and increased plant density, have been shown to enhance weed control and improve overall crop productivity (Wang et al., 2017).

6 Nutrient Management and Fertilization Strategies

6.1 Nitrogen management for yield enhancement

Effective nutrient management and fertilization strategies are crucial for optimizing rice yield, improving soil health, and ensuring sustainable agricultural practices. Nitrogen (N) is a critical nutrient for rice cultivation, significantly influencing yield and quality. Traditional nitrogen management practices often involve high N inputs, which can lead to environmental issues and reduced nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Recent studies suggest that optimizing nitrogen application can enhance both yield and NUE.

A study conducted in China demonstrated that reducing total N and late-stage N applications can improve rice eating quality and NUE without significantly compromising yield. This approach balances the need for high yield with the demand for better rice quality (Cheng et al., 2021). Another study highlighted the benefits of alternative fertilization options, such as slow-release nitrogen fertilizers and organic fertilizers, which showed significant improvements in yield and NUE compared to conventional fertilizers (Ding et al., 2018). Moreover, high nitrogen fertilization has been shown to enhance morpho-physiological responses and yield under deficit irrigation conditions, suggesting that higher N inputs can mitigate the adverse effects of water stress in semi-arid regions (Abdou et al., 2021). Optimized nitrogen management practices, including adjusting N application at different growth stages, have also been found to increase yield and NUE by improving the balance between yield formation factors (Sui et al., 2013).

6.2 Micronutrient application

While macronutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are essential for rice growth, micronutrients also play a vital role in achieving high yields and maintaining soil health. Micronutrient deficiencies can limit crop productivity, and their application can enhance nutrient use efficiency and yield. A meta-analysis investigating various fertilization practices found that secondary and micronutrient fertilizers (SMF) contributed to yield increases, although to a lesser extent than other alternative fertilization options. The study emphasized the importance of including micronutrients in fertilization regimes to achieve optimal results (Ding et al., 2018). Additionally, integrated nutrient management practices that combine organic and inorganic fertilizers have been shown to improve soil fertility and nutrient uptake, further supporting the role of micronutrients in sustainable rice cultivation (Urmi et al., 2022).

6.3 Fertilizer application timing and techniques

The timing and techniques of fertilizer application are critical factors that influence nutrient availability, uptake efficiency, and overall crop performance. Research indicates that strategic timing and innovative application methods can significantly enhance rice yield and NUE. A study on irrigation and fertilizer management revealed that water-saving irrigation techniques, coupled with optimized nitrogen application, can increase yield and NUE while reducing nitrogen loss. Controlled irrigation and alternate wet and dry irrigation schedules were particularly effective in achieving these outcomes (Qiu et al., 2022). Another study suggested that splitting nitrogen applications into multiple stages, rather than a single application, can improve yield and NUE by better matching the crop's nutrient demand throughout its growth cycle. Furthermore, site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) strategies, which tailor fertilizer recommendations based on field-specific conditions, have been shown to optimize nutrient use and maximize economic yield. This approach involves iterative adjustments to fertilizer application based on soil nutrient status and crop growth, ensuring that nutrients are supplied in the right amounts at the right times.

7 Technological Innovations in Rice Cultivation

7.1 Precision agriculture and digital tools

Precision agriculture and digital tools have revolutionized rice cultivation by enhancing resource use efficiency and increasing yields. The integration of site-specific nutrient management with alternate drying and wetting irrigation has shown significant improvements in both yield and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). For instance, a preliminary precision rice management (PRM) system increased grain yield by 10% and NUE by 51%~97% over traditional farmer practices (Zhao et al., 2013). Additionally, the use of big data, machine learning, and the Internet of Things (IoT) in smart farming has enabled better prediction of changes and identification of opportunities in rice production. These technologies facilitate smart irrigation, yield estimation, growth monitoring, and disease assessment, transforming traditional practices into precision agriculture (Figure 3) (Alfred et al., 2021).

7.2 Biotechnology and genetic engineering

Biotechnology and genetic engineering have played a crucial role in improving rice yields. Advances such as CRISPR-Cas9, molecular marker-assisted breeding, and genetic engineering have significantly enhanced the genetic potential of rice. These technologies have led to the development of high-yielding, stress-tolerant, and disease-resistant rice varieties. For example, modern genetic strategies have resulted in semi-dwarf rice types, new plant types, and hybrid rice, all contributing to increased yield potential (Altaf et al., 2021). Moreover, high-yielding rice cultivars have been shown to reduce methane emissions by increasing root porosity and promoting methane oxidation, thereby mitigating climate change impacts while enhancing productivity (Jiang et al., 2017).

7.3 Smart farming techniques

Smart farming techniques, including the use of advanced agronomic practices and innovative management systems, have been pivotal in increasing rice yields. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and other smart cultural management practices, such as optimized transplanting density and improved nitrogen management, have demonstrated substantial yield gains. For instance, the adoption of SRI elements, such as transplanting young seedlings and intermittent irrigation, has been shown to increase tiller and root numbers, thereby enhancing yield. Additionally, integrating planting density, nitrogen, and water management practices has significantly improved root traits and stubble characteristics, leading to higher grain yields and nitrogen agronomic efficiency in ratoon rice systems (Zheng et al., 2023).

8 Case Studies in High-Yield Rice Cultivation

8.1 Case study: high-yield rice varieties in southeast Asia

In Southeast Asia, the introduction of high-yield rice varieties has been pivotal in addressing food security challenges exacerbated by climate change. A multi-scale crop modeling approach was employed to assess the impacts of climate change on rice yields and to develop adaptation strategies. The study identified Cambodia as the most vulnerable country, with potential yield reductions of up to 45% by the 2080s under high-emission scenarios. However, improved irrigation practices could significantly mitigate these losses, increasing yields by up to 42.7% in some regions (Chun et al., 2016). Additionally, the adoption of appropriate agronomic practices, such as optimized seeding and nitrogen rates, has been shown to improve yield, water productivity, and nitrogen use efficiency in wet direct-seeded rice systems (Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). These findings underscore the importance of integrating advanced agronomic practices and climate adaptation strategies to sustain rice production in Southeast Asia.

8.2 Case study: sustainable yield strategies in India

In India, sustainable yield strategies have been implemented to enhance rice productivity while minimizing environmental impacts. In the Eastern Gangetic Plains, conservation agriculture-based sustainable intensification practices have been tested across various cropping systems. These practices significantly reduced energy use and CO₂-equivalent emissions while increasing energy use efficiency and net income for farmers (Gathala et al., 2020). Furthermore, in the northeastern Himalayas, improved agronomic practices and high-yielding rice varieties have been shown to maintain soil health and enhance yield and energy use efficiency. Farmers' participatory field trials demonstrated that improved practices, such as line-sowing and the application of farmyard manure, significantly increased rice yields and improved soil fertility compared to traditional shifting cultivation methods (Layek et al., 2023). These sustainable yield strategies highlight the potential for agronomic innovations to improve rice productivity and environmental sustainability in India.

8.3 Lessons learned from case studies

The case studies from Southeast Asia and India provide several key lessons for high-yield rice cultivation. The use of multi-scale crop modeling to develop national and farmer-level adaptation strategies is crucial for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change on rice yields. Improved irrigation and optimized agronomic practices can significantly enhance yield resilience (Chun et al., 2016; Santiago-Arenas et al., 2021). Conservation agriculture and sustainable intensification practices can reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions while increasing productivity and profitability. These practices are particularly effective in regions with high climate variability (Gathala et al., 2020). Maintaining soil health through improved agronomic practices, such as line-sowing and the use of organic fertilizers, is essential for sustaining high yields. Participatory approaches involving local farmers can ensure the successful adoption of these practices. The introduction of high-yield rice varieties, coupled with appropriate agronomic management, can significantly boost productivity. This approach is particularly effective in regions with challenging growing conditions, such as the northeastern Himalayas (Layek et al., 2023).

9 Challenges and Limitations in Achieving High Yields

9.1 Environmental and climate challenges

Environmental and climate factors significantly impact rice yields. Climate change has led to variations in potential yields across different regions. For instance, in the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River (MLRYR), potential rice yields have either declined or remained stagnant, while in the Northeastern China Plain (NECP), they have shown slight increases or stability over the years. Additionally, climate-induced water stress is a major limiting factor in both regions, affecting the overall productivity of rice crops (Zhang et al., 2019). In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), future productivity is threatened by climate change, water shortages, and soil degradation, which further complicate efforts to increase rice yields (Nhamo et al., 2014). The inherent soil properties also play a crucial role, as they can limit rice yields more than previously understood, necessitating optimized crop and soil management practices to mitigate these effects (An et al., 2015).

9.2 Socioeconomic and resource constraints

Socioeconomic factors and resource constraints also pose significant challenges to achieving high rice yields. In SSA, the lack of integration of improved technologies and socio-economic constraints largely explain the existing yield gaps (Nhamo et al., 2014). Smallholder farmers often face financial limitations that prevent them from adopting advanced agronomic practices and technologies, such as the use of fertilizers and improved irrigation methods (Awio et al., 2022). In Bangladesh, increasing population pressure, decreasing resources, and climate vulnerabilities like salinity, drought, and submergence further exacerbate these challenges (Bhuiyan et al., 2021). The high cost of fertilizers and other inputs can also reduce the net income of farmers, making it difficult for them to invest in practices that could potentially increase yields (Awio et al., 2022).

9.3 Yield gaps and limitations of current practices

Despite advancements in agronomic practices, significant yield gaps persist. In China, the average yield gap was found to be 16.0% in the 2000s, primarily due to water and nitrogen stresses (Zhang et al., 2019). In SSA, recommended agronomic practices (RAP) and farmer-selected best practices (FIP) have shown potential to reduce yield gaps, but the high cost of fertilizers poses a risk to profitability (Awio et al., 2022). The annual rate of rice yield increase has declined globally, from 2.7% in the 1980s to 1.1% in the 1990s, indicating that current crop and resource management practices are not fully exploiting the large yield potential of rice. In intensive rice cropping systems, steady agronomic and genetic interventions have helped sustain high annual production, but they have not achieved the necessary yield increases to keep pace with growing global demand (Ladha et al., 2021). Moreover, the lack of integration of improved technologies and socio-economic constraints largely explain the existing yield gaps (Nhamo et al., 2014).

Acknowledgments

I am deeply grateful to Professor R. Cai for his multiple reviews of this paper and for his constructive revision suggestions. I would also like to thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their valuable comments and recommendations.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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