1 Introduction

Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is an important oil crop worldwide, with high oil content and various applications in food and industry that have received widespread attention. Rapeseed oil is favored for its ideal fatty acid composition, particularly its high proportion of monounsaturated fatty acids, especially oleic acid (Abbadi and Leckband, 2011; Prakhova et al., 2019). Oleic acid is widely known for its health benefits, including reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and improving cholesterol levels (Long et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2022a). With the increasing demand for healthy oils from consumers, the high oleic acid content of rapeseed oil has become increasingly important. Due to its good stability, long shelf life, and suitability for high-temperature cooking, it has become the preferred choice for consumers and the food industry (Ishaq et al., 2017; Spasibionek et al., 2020).

Traditional breeding methods are difficult to rapidly increase oleic acid levels without affecting other agronomic traits. The genetic complexity of the biosynthesis pathway of fatty acids in rapeseed makes it more difficult to select and stabilize high oil acidity (Lee et al., 2018; Long et al., 2018). The progress of molecular breeding techniques, such as CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing and marker assisted selection, can accurately target and modify genes related to fatty acid metabolism (Guo et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022a). With the increasing demand for healthy oils from consumers, industry also requires stable and high-quality oils (Spasibionek et al., 2020).

2 Biosynthesis of oleic acid in rapeseed

2.1 Fatty acid biosynthesis pathway

The synthesis of fatty acids in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is a complex process, where acetyl CoA is converted to malonyl CoA, catalyzed by acetyl CoA carboxylase. Fatty acid synthase condenses it through a series of reactions, ultimately producing long-chain fatty acids. Palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) are key intermediates in the synthesis process, which are subsequently converted to oleic acid (C18:1) by the action of stearoyl ACP desaturase (SAD) (Tan et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2022).

2.2 Key enzymes involved in oleic acid production

Multiple enzymes play an important role in the synthesis of oleic acid in rapeseed. Fatty acid desaturase 2 (FAD2) is the most critical, catalyzing the conversion of oleic acid to linoleic acid (C18:2). Mutation or downregulation of FAD2 gene can lead to accumulation of oleic acid (Long et al., 2018; Spasibionek et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022a). Transcription factors such as LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1) and LEC1-LIKE (L1L) can also increase the expression of genes related to fatty acid synthesis (Tan et al., 2011). Overexpression of GmDof4 and GmDof11 transcription factors in soybeans increases oleic acid levels by directly regulating fatty acid synthesis related genes (Sun et al., 2018).

2.3 Genetic factors affecting oleic acid levels

Some single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the BnFAD2-1 and BnFAD2-2 genes are dysfunctional mutations that increase oleic acid levels (Long et al., 2018). The potential for increasing oleic acid content can also be achieved by using CRISPR/Cas9 technology to edit these genes (Liu et al., 2022a). The marker assisted selection method has also been used to develop rapeseed strains with high oleic acid and low linolenic acid, suitable for food and industrial applications (Spasibionek et al., 2020). The genetic regulation of oleic acid accumulation considers integrating long non coding RNAs (lncRNAs) into the lipid metabolism regulatory network (Wang et al., 2023).

3 Molecular Targets for Increasing Oleic Acid Content

3.1 Gene mutations affecting fatty acid composition

Gene mutations can alter the fatty acid composition of rapeseed, and utilizing CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology is an effective approach. By precise editing of two loci (A5 and C5) of the BnFAD2 gene, the oleic acid content in rapeseed oil reached over 85% in the T1 and T4 generations (Liu et al., 2022a). The use of ethyl methane sulfonic acid (EMS) induced FAD2-2 gene mutation resulted in two base deletions, forming a truncated peptide (Lee et al., 2018). The mutated allele of BnFAD2 contains a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) that renders it non functional (Long et al., 2018).

3.2 Identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs)

Multiple studies have identified QTLs associated with fatty acid composition. Multiple QTLs related to fatty acids have been identified in the double haploid rapeseed population, some of which are closely related to oil content (Zhao et al., 2007). Through genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) combined with QTL mapping, it was found that major loci such as qA07.SOC are associated with seed oil content and fatty acid composition.

3.3 Startup subregion and regulatory components

Overexpression of transcription factors GmDof4 and GmDof11 from soybean was found to increase oleic acid content in rapeseed. GmDof4 activates the expression of FAB2 gene by binding to its promoter, while GmDof11 inhibits the expression of FAD2 gene (Sun et al., 2018). By using seed specific promoters to regulate the expression of key genes such as LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1) and LEC1-LIKE (L1L), the seed oil content was increased without affecting other agronomic traits (Tan et al., 2011).

4 Molecular Breeding Techniques

4.1 Traditional Breeding and Molecular Breeding

Traditional breeding methods, such as hybridization and mutagenesis, increase genetic diversity through hybridization of different plant strains or mutagenesis (Behera et al., 2020). Traditional breeding usually takes a long time and has low accuracy, often resulting in unexpected genetic changes that require multiple generations of planting (Lamichhane and Thapa, 2022; Ali and Zhang, 2023). Molecular breeding methods, such as marker assisted selection (MAS) and gene editing techniques such as CRISPR/Cas9, are more precise and efficient in producing specific characteristics such as oleic acid content in rapeseed oil (Huang et al., 2020; Spasibionek et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022a; Huang and Hong, 2024).

4.2 Marking assisted selection (MAS) of oleic acid

Marker assisted selection (MAS) is a powerful breeding tool that selects plants with target traits by using molecular markers associated with these traits (Collard and Mackill, 2008). MAS has been successfully used to identify and select alleles of the FAD2 gene in increasing the oleic acid content of rapeseed oil, as the FAD2 gene plays a critical role in fatty acid composition (Matuszczak et al., 2020; Spasibionek et al., 2020; Fu et al., 2021). Specific co dominant restriction enzyme amplification polymorphism (CAPS) markers have been developed to detect mutations in the BnaA.FAD2 gene that are associated with increased oleic acid content (Figure 1) (Matuszczak et al., 2020). Competitive allele specific PCR (KASP) markers have also been used to identify novel mutant alleles of the BnFAD2 gene (Fu et al., 2021).

Figure 1 The mutations in the BnaA.FAD2 gene of rapeseed resulting in the increased amount of oleic acid in seeds and the method to obtain the codominant CAPS marker specific for these mutations (Adopted from Matuszczak et al., 2020)

4.3 CRISPR and gene editing technology

CRISPR/Cas9 and other gene editing techniques can precisely modify specific genes in molecular breeding (Jiang and Dou, 2017). By editing two positions (A5 and C5) of the BnFAD2 gene using CRISPR/Cas9, the oleic acid content in rapeseed can be increased to over 85%, while typically only single point editing results in oleic acid content below 80% (Liu et al., 2022a). CRISPR technology has also been used to target mutations in other genes, such as BnaFAE1, to reduce harmful fatty acids such as erucic acid (Figure 2) (Liu et al., 2022b).

Figure 2 BnaFAE1 gene analysis and mutant generation (Adopted from Liu et al., 2022b) Image caption: (A) Illustration of desaturation and elongation of fatty acids. Red cross indicates mutation of FAE1 genes to block the synthesis of EA. (B) Expression pattern of BnaFAE1s in different tissues. (C) Location of CRISPR/Cas9 sgRNA-1 and sgRNA-2 targeting BnaFAE1 genes and sequencing identification of T2 homozygous mutants. PAM is indicated in green. Red “-” means deletions. Red font indicates nucleotide insertions and substitutions (Adopted from Liu et al., 2022b)

5 Genomic Selection and High-Throughput Phenotypic Analysis

5.1 Genomic Selection in Rapeseed Breeding

Genomic selection (GS) uses genome-wide markers to predict the breeding value of individuals (Goddard and Hayes, 2007; Zhou and Guo, 2024). By using CRISPR/Cas9 technology to edit the BnFAD2 gene, the oleic acid content in rapeseed seeds has been significantly improved. By precisely editing two sites of the BnFAD2 gene (A5 and C5) in the T1 and T4 generations, mutant seeds show oleic acid content above 85% (Liu et al., 2022a). Marker-assisted selection (MAS) has also been used to breed rapeseed varieties with high oleic acid and low linolenic acid, suitable for food and industrial use (Javidfar et al., 2006; Spasibionek et al., 2020).

5.2 High-Throughput Phenotypic Analysis of Fatty Acid Composition

High-throughput phenotypic analysis (HTP), like near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and gas chromatography (GC), is often used in large-scale breeding to measure oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid content in rapeseed oil. After EMS mutagenesis, phenotypic screening identified rapeseed mutants with oleic acid content around 76% (Lee et al., 2018). Phenotypic data are combined with genomic data, such as identifying specific CAPS markers associated with high oleic acid and low linolenic acid (Janila et al., 2016; Long et al., 2018).

5.3 Integration of Genomic and Phenotypic Data

The key to effectively handling GS and HTP is to combine genomic and phenotypic data. Combining genome editing with phenotype evaluation, mutations in the BnaFAD2 gene optimally altered the composition of fatty acids, with some mutants having oleic acid content exceeding 80% (Huang et al., 2020). By utilizing the lncRNA mRNA regulatory network, we have gained a deeper understanding of the genetic regulation of lipid metabolism (Wang et al., 2023).

6 Omics Approaches to Enhance Oleic Acid Content

6.1 Transcriptomics and Gene Expression Analysis

Studying the gene expression of key genes in fatty acid metabolism, overexpression of soybean transcription factors GmDof4 and GmDof11 in rapeseed can increase oleic acid content by regulating genes related to fatty acid synthesis (such as FAB2 and FAD2) (Sun et al., 2018). New mutations in the BnFAD2 gene are linked to high oleic acid levels (Long et al., 2018; Fu et al., 2021).

6.2 Metabolomics and Fatty Acid Profile Analysis

Fatty acid profile analysis is a part of metabolomics, which is particularly helpful in quantifying various fatty acids in rapeseed oil. Chemical mutagenesis (such as EMS mutagenesis) alters the activity of certain desaturase enzymes (such as FAD2-2) (Lee et al., 2018). CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology targets the BnFAD2 gene and successfully cultivates mutants with oleic acid content exceeding 85% (Liu et al., 2022a).

6.3 Multi omics data integration

Integrating various data such as transcriptomics, metabolomics, and genomics can better understand the regulatory network of oleic acid synthesis, identify key regulatory factors and their interactions, and successfully increase oleic acid content and reduce adverse fatty acids such as erucic acid by simultaneously silencing FAD2 and FAE1 genes through data integration. The study of lncRNA mRNA regulatory networks revealed the role of certain lncRNAs in lipid metabolism (Wang et al., 2023).

7 Case Study on Successful Breeding Project of High Oleic Acid Rapeseed

7.1 Successful Cases of High Oleic Acid Rapeseed Breeding Project

The breeding project of high oleic acid rapeseed has made great progress through various genetic and molecular technologies, especially the application of CRISPR/Cas9 technology in editing the BnFAD2 gene. Through precise gene editing, two positions (A5 and C5) of the BnFAD2 gene were targeted, resulting in mutants with oleic acid content exceeding 85% in the T1 and T4 generations (Liu et al., 2022a). Another successful approach is to develop a super high oleic acid variety (N1379T) with an oleic acid content of approximately 85% by identifying and analyzing a new BnFAD2 mutant gene (Long et al., 2018).

7.2 Key Breeding Techniques Used

CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology is used to precisely edit the BnFAD2 gene. The use of dual site editing method is more effective than single site editing, and the oleic acid content of the edited mutant exceeds 85% (Liu et al., 2022a). High oleic acid mutants were created using the ethylmethane sulfonic acid (EMS) mutagenesis method, and ideal genotypes with high oleic acid and low linolenic acid content were screened through marker assisted selection technology (Lee et al., 2018; Spasibionek et al., 2020). Overexpression of soybean transcription factors GmDof4 and GmDof11 directly regulates fatty acid synthesis related genes in rapeseed (Sun et al., 2018). The strategy of simultaneously silencing FAD2 and FAE1 genes successfully altered the fatty acid composition, with oleic acid content reaching 85%, while reducing the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids and erucic acid (Peng et al., 2010).

7.3 Results and Impact on the Industry

Developed rapeseed varieties with high oleic acid content, which are also suitable for industrial applications such as biodiesel production and high-temperature frying due to their better oxidative stability (Spasibionek et al., 2020). With the help of advanced genetic technologies such as CRISPR/Cas9 and marker assisted selection, the breeding process has been accelerated, and target genes have been precisely modified. Rapeseed varieties have been improved in terms of high oleic acid content, low linolenic acid content, and low erucic acid content (Peng et al., 2010; Long et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2022a).

8 Challenges in Molecular Breeding of High Oleic Acid

8.1 Genetic complexity and trait stability

The trait of high oleic acid is usually controlled by multiple genes. Regarding the EMS mutagenesis study of FAD2-2 gene, single gene mutations can increase oleic acid levels, but the overall genetic background still affects the stability of the trait (Lee et al., 2018). The stability of the BnFAD2 gene across different generations remains a concern when edited using CRISPR/Cas9 technology (Liu et al., 2022a). Genetic analysis of F2 and BC1 generations revealed that high oleic acid is controlled by multiple non allelic genes (Golova, 2023).

8.2 The impact of environmental interaction on oleic acid levels

The interaction between genotype and environment can lead to fluctuations in oleic acid levels, even in genetically modified or selected varieties. In field experiments conducted in multiple environments, the levels of oleic acid and other fatty acids varied due to changes in environmental conditions (Spasibionek et al., 2020). Analysis of the regulatory network of lncRNA and mRNA suggests that environmental factors in different regions may affect lipid metabolism (Wang et al., 2023).

8.3 Regulatory and Market Restrictions

The development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) often faces strict regulatory scrutiny, which may delay the commercialization process of high oleic acid new varieties. Although CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology can efficiently increase oleic acid content, the regulatory framework for this technology is still evolving (Liu et al., 2022a). The market has particularly complex quality requirements for oil products, such as low sulfur glycoside content. High oleic acid strains typically need to meet other characteristics (such as low glucosinolate content) while maintaining oleic acid content (Spasibionek et al., 2020).

9 Future Directions for Increasing Oleic Acid Content

9.1 Advances in Gene Editing and Synthetic Biology

Gene editing technology, using CRISPR/Cas9 to edit the BnFAD2 gene, can precisely increase oleic acid levels. After editing two specific sites (A5 and C5) of the BnFAD2 gene, the mutant plants in the T1 and T4 generations had an oleic acid content exceeding 85% (Liu et al., 2022a). By mutating multiple copies of the BnaFAD2 gene using CRISPR/Cas9, some mutants had an oleic acid content exceeding 80% (Huang et al., 2020).

9.2 Potential of wild relatives and genetic diversity

A study has discovered some new BnFAD2 gene mutation alleles. Two new SNP mutations were found in BnFAD2-1 and BnFAD2-2, which increased the oleic acid content in rapeseed oil. These mutations are dysfunctional mutations that can effectively reduce the conversion of oleic acid to linoleic acid (Long et al., 2018). Researchers have also developed KASP markers for these mutations, which facilitate marker assisted selection to accelerate the cultivation of high oleic acid varieties (Fu et al., 2021).

9.3 Sustainable Breeding Practices

Marker assisted selection (MAS) and mutagenesis are two successful methods. Chemical mutagenesis using ethylmethane sulfonic acid (EMS) resulted in mutant strains with oleic acid content exceeding 75%. By combining these mutant strains with high-yielding local strains, new varieties with both high oleic acid content and good agronomic traits have been developed (Spasibionek et al., 2020). By using transgenic methods to simultaneously silence multiple genes (such as FAD2 and FAE1), the fatty acid composition of rapeseed was altered, and the oleic acid content reached 85% (Peng et al., 2010).

Acknowledgments

The BioSci Publisher appreciate the modification suggestions from two anonymous peer reviewers on the manuscript of this study.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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