1 Introduction

Desert ecosystems are characterized by extreme arid conditions, which necessitate continuous adaptations from the organismal level to the landscape scale. These ecosystems are home to unique flora and fauna that have evolved to survive in harsh environments with low water availability, high temperatures, and nutrient-poor soils (Quoreshi et al., 2022). Despite their resilience, desert ecosystems face significant stress due to climate change, rising temperatures, and anthropogenic factors, which threaten their biodiversity and ecological functions (Leung et al., 2020; Quoreshi et al., 2022). The dynamic nature of desert ecosystems, with irregular precipitation and nutrient cycling, further complicates the survival and productivity of these biotas (Crawford and Gosz, 1982).

Understanding food chains in arid environments is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, it provides insights into the trophic dynamics and energetic mechanisms that underpin the survival of organisms in these challenging conditions (Leung et al., 2020). Microbial communities, for instance, play a vital role in nutrient cycling and energy conservation, which are essential for maintaining ecosystem stability (Leung et al., 2020; Osborne et al., 2020). Secondly, studying food webs in extreme environments helps us understand community-wide responses to environmental pressures, which is vital for the future management and conservation of these ecosystems (Moran et al., 2019). Additionally, the interactions between plants, microbes, and animals in desert ecosystems can offer valuable information for sustainable agriculture and restoration efforts in arid regions (Alsharif et al., 2020; Dabravolski and Isayenkov, 2022).

This study aims to synthesize the current knowledge on the food chains that sustain arid ecosystems. Specifically, it will examine the adaptations and survival strategies of organisms in desert ecosystems, analyze the trophic dynamics and energy flow within desert food webs, assess the role of microbial communities in nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning, and evaluate the implications of these findings for the conservation and management of these ecosystems.

2 Characteristics of Desert Ecosystems

2.1 Climate and geography

Desert ecosystems are characterized by extreme climatic conditions, including high temperatures, low and unpredictable precipitation, and intense solar radiation. These factors create a challenging environment for life to thrive. The geography of deserts often includes vast stretches of sandy or rocky terrain with sparse vegetation. The soils in these regions are typically low in organic matter and nutrients, which further complicates the survival of flora and fauna (Crawford and Gosz, 1982; Quoreshi et al., 2022). The unique climatic and geographical features of deserts necessitate specialized adaptations for organisms to survive and maintain ecological balance (Love et al., 2022).

2.2 Adaptations of flora and fauna

The flora and fauna in desert ecosystems have evolved remarkable adaptations to cope with the harsh conditions. Plants, for instance, have developed strategies to minimize water loss and maximize water uptake. These include modifications in leaf structure, such as reduced leaf size, changes in leaf angle, and alterations in leaf optical properties to reduce solar radiation absorption. Some plants also employ a water-saver strategy, reducing water consumption at the expense of leaf cooling (Peguero-Pina et al., 2020). Similarly, desert animals exhibit adaptations like efficient water retention, nocturnal lifestyles to avoid daytime heat, and physiological mechanisms to withstand extreme temperatures and water scarcity (Rocha et al., 2021). Microorganisms in deserts also display unique survival strategies, such as dormancy and metabolic versatility, to endure low water potential and nutrient limitations (Leung et al., 2020).

2.3 Water scarcity and its impact on life

Water scarcity is a defining feature of desert ecosystems and has profound impacts on the life forms that inhabit these regions. The limited availability of water affects all levels of the ecosystem, from microbial life to large mammals. Plants and animals have developed various mechanisms to conserve water and utilize it efficiently. For example, desert plants often have deep root systems to access groundwater and can store water in their tissues (Peguero-Pina et al., 2020). The scarcity of water also influences the distribution and behavior of animals, many of which are adapted to obtain moisture from their food or through metabolic processes (Rocha et al., 2021). The ecohydrological characteristics of desert springs highlight the critical role of water in supporting biodiversity and maintaining ecological functions in these isolated ecosystems (Love et al., 2022). The increasing aridity due to climate change poses additional threats, potentially leading to widespread land degradation and desertification, which could further exacerbate water scarcity and its impacts on desert life (Berdugo et al., 2020).

3 Primary Producers in Desert Ecosystems

3.1 Role of desert plants (e.g., cacti, shrubs)

Desert plants, such as cacti and shrubs, play a crucial role in sustaining arid ecosystems. These plants are uniquely adapted to survive in environments with low and unpredictable precipitation. They contribute significantly to primary production, which is the foundation of the food chain in desert ecosystems. For instance, shrubs create "islands of fertility" where nutrients like nitrogen accumulate, making them more available to other plants and organisms (Crawford, and Gosz, 1982). Additionally, shrubs can act as buffer zones that moderate the effects of environmental changes, such as increased precipitation and nitrogen enrichment, on herbaceous plants (Bai et al., 2019).

3.2 Photosynthesis and water conservation strategies

Desert plants have evolved various strategies to optimize photosynthesis while conserving water. One common adaptation is the development of specialized photosynthetic pathways, such as Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), which allows plants to fix carbon dioxide at night, reducing water loss during the hot daytime hours. Moreover, desert plants often have deep root systems to access groundwater and thick, waxy cuticles to minimize water loss through transpiration (Quoreshi et al., 2022). These adaptations are essential for maintaining primary production in the harsh conditions of desert ecosystems, where water is a limiting factor (Hadley and Szarek, 1981).

3.3 Importance of algae and lichens

Algae and lichens are also vital primary producers in desert ecosystems. They are often found in biological soil crusts, which are communities of microorganisms that live on the soil surface. These crusts play a significant role in stabilizing soil, reducing erosion, and enhancing soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and carbon (Bay et al., 2021). Algae and lichens can photosynthesize and contribute to primary production even in extreme arid conditions, making them crucial for the resilience and sustainability of desert ecosystems (Leung et al., 2020) (Figure 1). Their ability to survive and function in such environments highlights the diverse strategies employed by primary producers to thrive in deserts.

4 Herbivores in Desert Food Chains

4.1 Types of desert herbivores

Desert ecosystems host a variety of herbivores that have adapted to the harsh conditions. These herbivores can be broadly categorized into insects, rodents, and ungulates. Insects, such as various species of beetles, play a crucial role in the desert food chain by consuming plant material and aiding in decomposition (Holter et al., 2009). Rodents, including species like the spinifex hopping-mouse (Notomys alexis) and the sandy inland mouse (Pseudomys hermannsburgensis), exhibit diverse dietary preferences, often consuming seeds, invertebrates, and plant material (Murray and Dickman, 1994). Ungulates, such as the gemsbok (Oryx g. gazella) and the springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), are larger herbivores that graze or browse on a variety of plant species (Lehmann et al., 2013).

4.2 Adaptations for water and nutrient acquisition

Herbivores in desert environments have evolved several adaptations to cope with the scarcity of water and nutrients. For instance, desert ungulates like the gemsbok and springbok exhibit dietary plasticity, allowing them to switch between different types of plants depending on availability and environmental conditions (Lehmann et al., 2013). The Cuvier’s gazelle (Gazella cuvieri) relies heavily on acacias, which are key species in their diet, providing essential nutrients and moisture (Herrera-Sánchez et al., 2023). Rodents, such as the spinifex hopping-mouse, may prefer invertebrate material over plant seeds, possibly due to the higher water content in invertebrates (Murray and Dickman, 1994). Additionally, desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) track the flowering phenology of their preferred food plants, consuming succulent plants during the spring when they are most abundant and nutritious (Jennings and Berry, 2015).

4.3 Feeding behaviors and diet specialization

Feeding behaviors and diet specialization among desert herbivores are influenced by the availability of food resources and environmental conditions. The gemsbok and springbok demonstrate different feeding strategies; the gemsbok shows high dietary plasticity, consuming a mix of C3, C4, and CAM plants, while the springbok is more of a generalist feeder (Lehmann et al., 2013). The Cuvier’s gazelle exhibits a browsing behavior, primarily feeding on acacias and other shrubs, which helps them survive in the hyper-arid Sahara desert (Herrera-Sánchez et al., 2023). Desert tortoises are selective herbivores that adjust their diet based on the temporal availability of preferred food plants, focusing on plants in a succulent state during the spring (Jennings and Berry, 2015). Insect herbivores, such as the dung beetle Pachysoma glentoni, have unique nutritional adaptations, subsisting on plant litter and demonstrating efficient nutrient assimilation (Holter et al., 2009). These diverse feeding behaviors and diet specializations enable desert herbivores to thrive in environments with limited and variable food resources.

5 Carnivores and Predators in the Desert

5.1 Key desert predators

Desert ecosystems, despite their harsh conditions, support a variety of predators that play crucial roles in maintaining ecological balance. Key predators in these arid environments include reptiles, birds of prey, and mammals. For instance, large carnivorous reptiles such as varanid lizards (e.g., Varanus tristis, V. gouldii, and V. panoptes) are prevalent in arid Australia and primarily feed on invertebrates, although they also consume small vertebrates opportunistically (Cross et al., 2020). Birds of prey, such as hawks and eagles, are adept hunters that target small mammals and reptiles. Mammalian predators, including the versatile puma (Puma concolor), exhibit remarkable dietary flexibility, consuming a wide range of prey species across different habitats in the Americas (Karandikar et al., 2022).

5.2 Hunting strategies and prey selection

Predators in desert ecosystems employ various hunting strategies and exhibit selective prey preferences to maximize their survival in resource-scarce environments. For example, pumas adapt their diet based on environmental conditions and prey availability, consuming larger prey species in regions farther from the equator and smaller prey in tropical areas (Karandikar et al., 2022). Varanid lizards, on the other hand, primarily rely on abundant invertebrate prey such as Orthoptera but will also consume mammalian carrion and small reptiles when available. These reptiles can survive on infrequent feeds and even aestivate during unfavorable conditions, showcasing their adaptability (Cross et al., 2020). Additionally, wild carnivores may select prey based on macronutrient content, optimizing their nutrient intake to enhance performance and survival (Kohl et al., 2015).

5.3 Role of scavengers in nutrient cycling

Scavengers play a pivotal role in nutrient cycling within desert ecosystems by breaking down carcasses and recycling nutrients back into the environment. Mammalian carnivores, such as those in northern temperate and African savanna ecosystems, exhibit facultative predation and scavenging behaviors, shifting between these strategies based on seasonal availability of carrion and prey vulnerability. This flexibility allows them to exploit various food sources throughout the year, thereby maintaining ecological balance. Scavengers, including top carnivores, provide a consistent supply of carcasses that support other scavengers when natural carrion availability is low, thus buffering the ecosystem against anthropogenic and environmental changes (Pereira et al., 2014). This intricate interplay between predation and scavenging underscores the importance of scavengers in sustaining nutrient cycles in desert habitats.

6 Decomposers and Detritivores

6.1 Types of decomposers in desert environments

Desert ecosystems, despite their harsh conditions, host a variety of decomposers and detritivores that play crucial roles in nutrient cycling. Key decomposers include bacteria and fungi, which are adapted to survive extreme temperatures, low water availability, and nutrient-poor soils (Alsharif et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; Quoreshi et al., 2022). Additionally, macro-arthropods such as isopods and other burrowing detritivores are prevalent in these environments. These organisms remain active during dry periods and contribute significantly to the breakdown of organic matter (Sagi et al., 2019; Sagi and Hawlena, 2021).

6.2 Breakdown of organic matter

The breakdown of organic matter in desert ecosystems is a complex process influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors. Microbial decomposers, including bacteria and fungi, initiate the decomposition process by breaking down plant litter and other organic materials into simpler compounds (Alsharif et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020). Macro-arthropods, such as isopods, further process this material by transporting it belowground, where conditions are more favorable for microbial activity. This vertical nutrient recycling loop accelerates the mineralization of plant litter nutrients, making them available for plant uptake even when the surface soil is dry (Sagi et al., 2019; Sagi and Hawlena, 2021).

6.3 Contribution to soil fertility and ecosystem health

Decomposers and detritivores are essential for maintaining soil fertility and overall ecosystem health in desert environments. By breaking down organic matter, these organisms release essential nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus back into the soil, which are critical for plant growth (Mougi, 2020; Quoreshi et al., 2022). The activity of burrowing detritivores, in particular, creates hotspots of productivity and biological diversity by altering soil microtopography and reducing soil salinity (Sagi et al., 2019; Sagi and Hawlena, 2021) (Figure 2). This enhanced nutrient availability supports plant diversity and productivity, which in turn stabilizes the ecosystem and helps combat desertification (Mougi, 2020; Sagi and Hawlena, 2021). Understanding the roles of these organisms is crucial for developing strategies to restore and sustain arid ecosystems in the face of climate change and other anthropogenic pressures (Leung et al., 2020; Quoreshi et al., 2022).

7 Interconnectedness of Desert Food Chains

7.1 Trophic levels and energy flow

In desert ecosystems, the efficiency of energy flow through food webs is a critical factor that influences the production of animal biomass and the number of trophic levels an ecosystem can support. Studies have shown that food web efficiency in desert streams is influenced by factors such as primary production rates, disturbance regimes, and predator-prey interactions. For instance, research on desert streams has demonstrated that gross primary production is highest in environments with flashier flow regimes and greater light, temperature, and nitrogen availability. However, fish production and food web efficiency tend to decrease under these conditions, indicating a decoupling of energy flow from primary producers to upper trophic levels (Baruch et al., 2023). This suggests that the energy flow in desert ecosystems is complex and can be significantly impacted by environmental variables.

7.2 Food web complexity in arid regions

The complexity of food webs in arid regions is shaped by the unique environmental stresses and resource limitations characteristic of these ecosystems. For example, microbial life in deserts is highly diverse and plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling and energy flow. Microorganisms in these environments have adapted to extreme conditions through strategies such as dormancy and the utilization of various energy sources, including organic reserves and atmospheric trace gases (Leung et al., 2020). Additionally, the biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen in arid ecosystems is predominantly microbially mediated, with processes such as nitrogen fixation and nitrification being critical for maintaining ecosystem productivity (Ramond et al., 2022). These microbial processes contribute to the overall complexity and resilience of desert food webs.

7.3 Case studies of desert food webs

Several case studies highlight the intricate nature of desert food webs and the adaptations of organisms to arid conditions. For instance, research on the Atacama Desert, one of the harshest environments on Earth, has revealed that plants in this region have developed unique adaptive strategies, such as the enrichment of growth-promoting bacteria near their roots and the positive selection of genes associated with stress responses and energy production (Eshel et al., 2021) (Figure 3). Another study on native desert grasses in Kuwait demonstrated that these plants efficiently use water and maintain nutritional values under drought stress, which is essential for sustaining vegetation and supporting herbivores in the ecosystem (Madouh, 2022). These case studies underscore the interconnectedness of desert food chains and the importance of understanding the adaptive mechanisms that enable organisms to thrive in such extreme environments.

8 Human Impact on Desert Food Chains

8.1 Land use changes and habitat fragmentation

Land use changes and habitat fragmentation significantly impact desert food chains by altering the availability and distribution of resources. In Central Asia's arid regions, for example, changes in land use have led to a decrease in forest and bare land areas, while grassland and cropland areas have increased. This shift has resulted in decreased soil conservation, water yield, and sand fixation, which are critical ecosystem services in desert environments (Fu et al., 2017). Similarly, in the arid southeastern Iberian Peninsula, the expansion of greenhouse horticulture and urban intensification has led to ecosystem fragmentation, affecting the delivery of key ecosystem services such as water regulation and erosion control (Quintas-Soriano et al., 2016).

8.2 Overgrazing, mining, and urbanization effects

Overgrazing, mining, and urbanization are major anthropogenic activities that disrupt desert ecosystems. Overgrazing in the desert steppe of Northern China has been shown to reduce plant diversity and productivity, leading to ecosystem degradation and desertification (Zhang et al., 2018). Urbanization also affects desert ecosystems by altering species composition and abundance. In Tucson, Arizona, urbanization has led to distinct ant assemblages in different habitat types, with irrigated parks showing higher ant abundances due to increased resource availability and localized cooling effects (Miguelena and Baker, 2019). Additionally, mining activities contribute to habitat destruction and pollution, further stressing desert ecosystems.

8.3 Conservation efforts and sustainable practices

Conservation efforts and sustainable practices are essential to mitigate the negative impacts of human activities on desert food chains. Sustainable grazing land management (SGLM) practices, for instance, can prevent land degradation and support ecosystem services by improving soil quality and vegetation cover, and reducing animal pressure (Díaz-Pereira et al., 2020). In the Tarim River Basin, increased humidity and sustainable land management practices have improved desert riparian ecosystems, highlighting the importance of moisture in driving ecosystem patterns (Guo et al., 2023). Furthermore, the implementation of protected areas and investment in agricultural science and technology can enhance the sustainable use of ecosystem services in desert regions (Fu et al., 2017).

9 Climate Change and Desert Ecosystems

9.1 Predicted impacts of global warming on arid regions

Global warming is expected to have profound impacts on arid regions, primarily through increased aridity and altered precipitation patterns. Research indicates that rising temperatures coupled with reduced rainfall will exacerbate desertification processes, leading to significant ecological shifts. For instance, Berdugo et al. (2020) highlight that increasing aridity promotes abrupt and systemic changes in dryland ecosystems, affecting plant productivity, soil fertility, and species richness. They predict that more than 20% of the terrestrial surface will cross critical aridity thresholds by 2100, potentially leading to widespread land degradation and desertification. Additionally, long-term studies in the Tengger Desert have shown that even modest increases in temperature and reductions in precipitation can significantly reduce the cover and biomass of key biotic components like mosses, which are crucial for maintaining soil stability and carbon uptake (Li et al., 2021).

9.2 Changes in species distribution and behavior

Climate change is also expected to alter the distribution and behavior of species within desert ecosystems. As aridity increases, species that are less tolerant to dry conditions may decline or migrate to more hospitable areas, while more drought-resistant species may become more dominant. For example, in biocrust communities, mosses have shown a significant decline in cover and biomass under warming and drought conditions, whereas lichens have remained relatively unaffected. This shift could lead to changes in the overall functionality of these communities, as mosses play a critical role in carbon uptake and soil stabilization (Li et al., 2021). Furthermore, the alteration of plant community composition, such as shrub encroachment and decreased vegetation cover, is a common response to desertification, driven by both climatic and land-use changes (D’Odorico et al., 2013).

9.3 Adaptive responses and resilience of desert food chains

Despite the challenges posed by climate change, desert ecosystems exhibit various adaptive responses that contribute to their resilience. Some species and communities have developed mechanisms to cope with increased aridity and reduced water availability. For instance, lichens in biocrust communities have shown resilience to warming and drought conditions, maintaining their cover and biomass and thus supporting the multifunctionality of these ecosystems (Li et al., 2021). Additionally, early warning signs of desertification, such as changes in vegetation cover and soil properties, can serve as indicators of resilience loss, allowing for timely intervention and management strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change (D’Odorico et al., 2013). Understanding these adaptive responses is crucial for developing effective conservation and management practices to sustain desert food chains and the broader ecosystem services they provide.

10 Research Gaps and Future Directions

10.1 Current knowledge limitations

Despite significant advancements in understanding desert ecosystems, several knowledge gaps persist. One major limitation is the incomplete understanding of soil biodiversity and its role in plant diversity and productivity in arid regions. The relationship between soil microbial communities and ecosystem functions remains underexplored, particularly in the context of nutrient cycling and plant-soil interactions (Quoreshi et al., 2022; Ramond et al., 2022). Additionally, the energetic mechanisms and trophic dynamics of microbial life in desert ecosystems are not fully understood, especially how these microorganisms adapt to extreme conditions and contribute to the overall ecosystem resilience (Leung et al., 2020). Furthermore, there is a lack of comprehensive data on the biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen and other essential nutrients in various desert niches, which is crucial for predicting ecosystem responses to environmental changes (Ramond et al., 2022).

10.2 Suggested areas for further research

Future research should focus on several key areas to address these knowledge gaps. First, there is a need for detailed studies on the role of soil biodiversity in maintaining ecosystem functions and supporting plant growth in arid environments. This includes investigating the interactions between soil microorganisms and plants, and how these relationships influence nutrient availability and ecosystem productivity (Quoreshi et al., 2022; Ramond et al., 2022). Second, research should aim to elucidate the energetic strategies and survival mechanisms of desert microorganisms, particularly how they conserve energy and persist under extreme conditions (Leung et al., 2020). Third, more comprehensive studies on the biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen and other nutrients in desert ecosystems are necessary. This includes quantifying the rates of nitrogen transformation processes and understanding the factors that drive these processes in different desert environments (Ramond et al., 2022). Additionally, exploring the potential of desert-adapted plants and their associated microbes for sustainable agriculture could provide valuable insights into improving crop productivity in arid regions (Alsharif et al., 2020).

10.3 Potential advancements in understanding desert food chains

Advancements in understanding desert food chains can be achieved through the integration of modern technologies and interdisciplinary approaches. The application of meta-omics techniques, such as genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, can provide detailed insights into the diversity, functionality, and ecological roles of microbial communities in desert soils (Ramond et al., 2022). Network-based approaches, such as food web modeling, can help elucidate the complex interactions between different species and their roles within the ecosystem, particularly the impact of human activities on these networks (Crabtree et al., 2019). Additionally, developing innovative management strategies that incorporate the ecological principles of desert ecosystems can enhance the sustainable use of these environments for food and fiber production (Whitford and Wade, 2002). By addressing these research gaps and leveraging new technologies, we can significantly advance our understanding of how food chains sustain arid ecosystems and contribute to their resilience and sustainability.

11 Concluding Remarks

Desert ecosystems, despite their harsh conditions, support complex food chains that are crucial for maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance. Primary production in these ecosystems is significantly limited by factors such as precipitation and nutrient availability, particularly nitrogen. The transfer of energy and nutrients through various trophic levels is also constrained by water availability, which affects decomposition rates and the activity of decomposer organisms. Additionally, the unique flora and fauna in desert regions have adapted to extreme arid conditions, but they face significant stress due to climate change, rising temperatures, and low rainfall. The efficiency of food webs in desert streams is influenced by primary production, disturbance regimes, and predator-prey interactions, with food web efficiency being particularly challenging to quantify.

Preserving desert ecosystems is vital due to their unique biodiversity and the specialized adaptations of their flora and fauna. These ecosystems are not only home to species that have evolved to survive extreme conditions but also play a crucial role in global ecological processes. The soils in arid regions, although low in organic matter and nutrients, are integral to plant diversity and productivity, which in turn supports the entire food web. Conservation efforts must address the challenges posed by human activities, climate change, and the increasing demand for land and food security. Understanding the ecological processes and improving knowledge of plant-soil biological interactions are essential for the successful restoration and revegetation of these fragile ecosystems.

Desert food chains exhibit remarkable resilience and sustainability despite the extreme conditions they face. The interdependence of terrestrial and marine resources, as seen in the Peruvian coastal desert, highlights the complex interactions that sustain these ecosystems. The ability of desert species to adapt to limited water and nutrient availability underscores the importance of preserving these unique habitats. However, the sustainability of desert food chains is threatened by anthropogenic factors and environmental changes. Continued research and conservation efforts are necessary to ensure the long-term viability of desert ecosystems, which are crucial for maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance on a global scale.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thanks colleague Natasha Liu, for the inspiration and guidance on the manuscript of this study, and the valuable insights during academic discussions.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

Alsharif W., Saad M., and Hirt H., 2020, Desert microbes for boosting sustainable agriculture in extreme environments, Frontiers in Microbiology, 11: 1666.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.01666

Bai Y., She W., Zhang Y., Qiao Y., Fu J., and Qin S., 2019, N enrichment, increased precipitation, and the effect of shrubs collectively shape the plant community in a desert ecosystem in northern China, The Science of the Total Environment, 135379.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135379

Baruch E., Harms T., Ruhí A., Lu M., Gaines-Sewell L., and Sabo J., 2023, Food web efficiency in desert streams, Limnology and Oceanography, 68(3): 723-734.

https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.12305

Bay S., Waite D., Dong X., Gillor O., Chown S., Hugenholtz P., and Greening C., 2021, Chemosynthetic and photosynthetic bacteria contribute differentially to primary production across a steep desert aridity gradient, The ISME Journal, 15: 3339-3356.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-021-01001-0

Berdugo M., Delgado-Baquerizo M., Soliveres S., Hernández-Clemente R., Zhao Y., Gaitán J., Gross N., Saiz H., Maire V., Lehmann A., Rillig M., Solé R., and Maestre F., 2020, Global ecosystem thresholds driven by aridity, Science, 367: 787-790.

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay5958

Crabtree S., Bird D., and Bird R., 2019, Subsistence transitions and the simplification of ecological networks in the western desert of Australia, Human Ecology, 47:165-177.

https://doi.org/10.1007/S10745-019-0053-Z

Crawford C., and Gosz J., 1982, Desert ecosystems: their resources in space and time, Environmental Conservation, 9: 181-195.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900020397

Cross S., Craig M., Tomlinson S., and Bateman P., 2020, I don’t like crickets, I love them: invertebrates are an important prey source for varanid lizards, Journal of Zoology, 310: 323-333.

https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12750

D’Odorico P., Bhattachan A., Davis K., Ravi S., and Runyan C., 2013, Global desertification: drivers and feedbacks, Advances in Water Resources, 51: 326-344.

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADVWATRES.2012.01.013

Dabravolski S., and Isayenkov S., 2022, Metabolites facilitating adaptation of desert cyanobacteria to extremely arid environments, Plants, 11(23): 3225.

https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11233225

Díaz-Pereira E., Romero-Díaz A., and Vente J., 2020, Sustainable grazing land management to protect ecosystem services, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 25: 1461-1479.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-020-09931-4

Eshel G., Araus V., Undurraga S., Soto D., Moraga C., Montecinos A., Moyano T., Maldonado J., Díaz F., Varala K., Nelson C., Contreras-López O., Pál-Gábor H., Kraiser T., Carrasco-Puga G., Nilo-Poyanco R., Zegar C., Orellana A., Montecino M., Maass A., Allende M., DeSalle R., Stevenson D., González M., Latorre C., Coruzzi G., and Gutiérrez R., 2021, Plant ecological genomics at the limits of life in the Atacama Desert, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(46): e2101177118.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101177118

Fu Q., Li B., Hou Y., Bi X., and Zhang X., 2017, Effects of land use and climate change on ecosystem services in Central Asia's arid regions: a case study in Altay Prefecture, China, The Science of the Total Environment, 607-608: 633-646.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.241

Guo X., Zhu L., Tang Y., and Li Z., 2023, Increased humidity improved desert riparian ecosystems in the Tarim River Basin, Northwest China, from 1990 to 2020, Sustainability, 15(19): 14092.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914092

Hadley N., and Szarek S., 1981, Productivity of desert ecosystems, BioScience, 31: 747-753.

https://doi.org/10.2307/1308782

Herrera-Sánchez F., López O., Rodríguez-Siles J., Díaz-Portero M., Arredondo Á., Sáez J., Álvarez B., Cancio I., Lucas J., Pérez J., Valenzuela G., Martínez-Valderrama J., Sánchez-Cerdá M., Qninba A., Virgós E., Calleja J., Bartolomé J., Albanell E., Serrano E., Abáigar T., and Gil-Sánchez J., 2023, Feeding ecology of the cuvier’s gazelle (Gazella cuvieri, Ogilby, 1841) in the Sahara Desert, Animals : an Open Access Journal from MDPI, 13(4): 567.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040567

Holter P., Scholtz C., and Stenseng L., 2009, Desert detritivory: nutritional ecology of a dung beetle (Pachysoma glentoni) subsisting on plant litter in arid South African sand dunes, Journal of Arid Environments, 73: 1090-1094.

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2009.04.009

Jennings W., and Berry K., 2015, Desert Tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) are selective herbivores that track the flowering phenology of their preferred food plants, PLoS ONE, 10(1): e0116716.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116716

Karandikar H., Serota M., Sherman W., Green J., Verta G., Kremen C., and Middleton A., 2022, Dietary patterns of a versatile large carnivore, the puma (Puma concolor), Ecology and Evolution, 12(6): e9002.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9002

Kohl K., Coogan S., and Raubenheimer D., 2015, Do wild carnivores forage for prey or for nutrients? Evidence for nutrient‐specific foraging in vertebrate predators,  BioEssays, 37(6): 701-709.

https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201400171

Lehmann D., Mfune J., Gewers E., Cloete J., Brain C., and Voigt C., 2013, Dietary plasticity of generalist and specialist ungulates in the namibian desert: a stable isotopes approach, PLoS ONE, 8(8): e72190.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072190

Leung P., Bay S., Meier D., Chiri E., Cowan D., Gillor O., Woebken D., and Greening C., 2020, Energetic basis of microbial growth and persistence in desert ecosystems, mSystems, 5(2): 10.

https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00495-19

Li X., Hui R., Zhang P., and Song N., 2021, Divergent responses of moss- and lichen-dominated biocrusts to warming and increased drought in arid desert regions, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 303: 108387.

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGRFORMET.2021.108387

Love A., Zdon A., Fraga N., Cohen B., Mejia M., Maxwell R., and Parker S., 2022, Statistical evaluation of the similarity of characteristics in springs of the California Desert, United States, Front. Environ. Sci., 10: 1020243.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1020243

Madouh T., 2022, Eco-physiological responses of native desert plant species to drought and nutritional levels: case of kuwait, Front. Environ. Sci., 10: 785517.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.785517

Miguelena J., and Baker P., 2019, Effects of urbanization on the diversity, abundance, and composition of ant assemblages in an arid city, Environmental Entomology, 48: 836-846.

https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvz069

Moran N., Wong B., and Thompson R., 2019, Communities at the extreme: aquatic food webs in desert landscapes, Ecology and Evolution, 9: 11464-11475.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5648

Mougi A., 2020, Coupling of green and brown food webs and ecosystem stability, Ecology and Evolution, 10: 9192-9199.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6586

Murray B., and Dickman C., 1994, Food preferences and seed selection in two species of Australian desert rodent, Wildlife Research, 21: 647-655.

https://doi.org/10.1071/WR9940647

Osborne P., Hall L., Kronfeld-Schor N., Thybert D., and Haerty W., 2020, A rather dry subject; investigating the study of arid-associated microbial communities, Environmental Microbiome, 15: 20.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40793-020-00367-6

Peguero-Pina J., Vilagrosa A., Alonso-Forn D., Ferrio J., Sancho-Knapik D., and Gil-Pelegrín E., 2020, Living in drylands: functional adaptations of trees and shrubs to cope with high temperatures and water scarcity, Forests, 11(10): 1028.

https://doi.org/10.3390/F11101028

Pereira L., Owen-Smith N., and Moléon M., 2014, Facultative predation and scavenging by mammalian carnivores: seasonal, regional and intra-guild comparisons, Mammal Review, 44: 44-55.

https://doi.org/10.1111/MAM.12005

Quintas-Soriano C., Quintas-Soriano C., Castro A., Castro A., Castro H., and García-Llorente M., 2016, Impacts of land use change on ecosystem services and implications for human well-being in Spanish drylands, Land Use Policy, 54: 534-548.

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2016.03.011

Quoreshi A., Kumar V., Adeleke R., Qu L., and Atangana A., 2022, Editorial: soils and vegetation in desert and arid regions: Soil system processes, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and restoration, Front. Environ. Sci., 10: 962905.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.962905

Ramond J., Jordaan K., Díez B., Heinzelmann S., and Cowan D., 2022, Microbial biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen in arid ecosystems, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 86(2): e00109-e00121.

https://doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.00109-21

Rocha J., Godinho R., Brito J., and Nielsen R., 2021, Life in deserts: the genetic basis of mammalian desert adaptation, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 36(7): 637-650.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2021.03.007

Sagi N., and Hawlena D., 2021, Arthropods as the engine of nutrient cycling in arid ecosystems, Insects, 12(8): 726.

https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12080726

Sagi N., Grünzweig J., and Hawlena D., 2019, Burrowing detritivores regulate nutrient cycling in a desert ecosystem, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 286(1914): 1647.

https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.1647

Whitford W., and Wade E., 2002, Desert ecosystems in the future, Ecology of Desert Systems, 319-325.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012747261-4/50013-4

Zhang R., Wang Z., Han G., Schellenberg M., Wu Q., and Gu C., 2018, Grazing induced changes in plant diversity is a critical factor controlling grassland productivity in the Desert Steppe, Northern China, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 265: 73-83.

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGEE.2018.05.014