1 Introduction

Kiwifruit cultivation is now facing many problems, such as increasing planting costs, shrinking planting areas, and lack of unified planting standards. These problems will lead to inefficient resource utilization and affect the sustainable development of the kiwifruit industry. Excessive use of mineral fertilizers and old-fashioned irrigation methods will cause waste and environmental pollution. In addition, some new problems have begun to emerge, such as "kiwifruit vine decline syndrome", which is often related to inadequate water management or poor soil conditions, and will also affect the yield and health of orchards (Sofo et al., 2024). The industry also has to face the challenges brought by climate change, such as unstable rainfall schedules or more extreme weather, which will affect kiwifruit yield and fruit quality (Rajan et al., 2024).

Irrigation and fertilization are key to determining kiwifruit yield and quality. Kiwifruit is particularly sensitive to water, and water shortage and too much water will cause problems. Therefore, in order to avoid plant stress or disease, it is necessary to do a good job of irrigation management. Similarly, fertilization must also be particular, especially nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. If fertilizer is used too much or at the wrong time, it will easily cause nutrient loss, deteriorate the soil, and be bad for the environment (Zhao et al., 2017; Lu et al., 2018; Kokkora et al., 2023). Some recent studies have mentioned that water-saving irrigation and integrated management methods are more reliable. These methods not only save water, but also make the fruit better and are more conducive to the long-term development of kiwifruit orchards.

This study reviews the latest progress in optimizing irrigation and fertilization programs to improve kiwifruit yield and quality, examines the effects of different water and nutrient management strategies in different environments and growth stages, identifies best practices for balancing productivity and sustainability, and fills the current knowledge gap in orchard management, hoping to provide growers, researchers and policymakers with sustainable kiwifruit cultivation recommendations to support the industry's long-term viability and resilience in the face of environmental and economic challenges.

2 Physiological Responses of Kiwifruit to Water and Fertilizer

2.1 Root absorption and water stress adaptation

Kiwifruit roots are mostly shallow fleshy roots, which are particularly sensitive to water and soil conditions. If the water is unstable or the soil is not good, the roots cannot absorb enough water and fertilizer, and the fruit yield and quality will decrease (Calabritto et al., 2024). Among them, lateral roots are particularly important for the absorption of water and fertilizer. Studies have found that genes such as AcEXPA23 can promote lateral root growth, allowing plants to better utilize water and fertilizer (Wu et al., 2022). When encountering drought or waterlogging, a signal called ABA is activated in the roots of kiwifruit. This signal can help plants adapt to environmental stress (Wurms et al., 2023). In addition, if some mycorrhizal fungi or melatonin are applied to the roots, the roots will grow more vigorously, and the ability to absorb fertilizer and water will also become stronger, thereby improving drought resistance (Xia et al., 2022). The study also found that kiwifruit roots mainly absorb water in the soil layer within 30 cm. Therefore, when irrigating, the amount of water and the water layer should be controlled to avoid the pressure caused by sudden changes in water.

2.2 Photosynthetic efficiency and nutrient transport

Water and fertilizer directly affect the photosynthesis of kiwifruit leaves. If there is too little or too much water, the stomata of the plant will close and the photosynthesis efficiency will decrease. However, some drought-resistant rootstocks can maintain a certain gas exchange and photosynthesis even in drought (Li et al., 2020; Calabritto et al., 2025). Mycorrhizal fungi and melatonin are not only good for roots, but also increase chlorophyll content, thereby enhancing photosynthesis (Xia et al., 2022). Calcium is also important. It can stabilize cell structure, regulate signal transduction, and help various nutrients move in the plant body (Larocca et al., 2025). The smooth transportation of elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and iron can maintain plant health and normal photosynthesis of leaves.

2.3 Regulation of fruit development and quality

Water and fertilizer also affect the size and taste of kiwifruit. If there is a lack of water in the early stage of fruit growth, the fruit may become smaller; but if there is a lack of water when it is about to mature, it may increase the sugar content, taste sweeter, and the storage time may also be longer. Studies have shown that reasonable regulation of irrigation and fertilization at different growth stages, such as slight water shortage combined with fertilization, can make the fruit harder and sweeter, and increase the content of vitamin C and dry matter (Zha et al., 2023). During the development of the fruit, nutrients such as sugars, flavonoids and vitamins are accumulated. The changes in these components are controlled by the metabolic and gene regulatory systems in the plant, which are in turn affected by water and nutrients (Shu et al., 2023). At the same time, the distribution of calcium in the fruit is also critical, which is very helpful for the quality and storage performance of the fruit (Larocca et al., 2025).

3 Optimization of Irrigation Regimes

3.1 Trials on irrigation frequency and volume

Many field tests and simulation studies have found that the reasonable arrangement of the number of irrigations and the amount of water each time are critical to saving water and increasing yields. There is now a technology called "variable irrigation (VRI)", which can adjust the watering frequency and water consumption of each plot of land according to the different soil and crop conditions of the plot. This not only saves water, but also does not reduce yields. It is particularly cost-effective to use in water-scarce areas (González Perea et al., 2018). However, conditions in different regions are different, so it is best to do some experiments locally to see how to make the most appropriate adjustments.

3.2 Stage-specific irrigation strategies

Kiwifruit has different water requirements at different growth stages. If the right amount of water can be given at each stage, it is easier to grow good fruit. Now there are some "decision-making tools" and "prescription maps" that can help calculate when and how much water to apply, and they will be arranged according to the climate and plant needs (Neupane and Guo, 2019). Some methods also directly look at the state of the plant, such as whether the leaves lack water, whether the stomata are open, etc., to determine whether it is time to water (Fernández, 2017). This method is more accurate and can avoid insufficient water during critical periods and prevent excessive watering.

3.3 Application of smart and precision irrigation

Now more and more orchards are beginning to use "smart irrigation" systems. This system is inseparable from the Internet of Things and some advanced control programs. It collects real-time data on soil moisture, weather and plants, and automatically decides whether to water and how much to water (Figure 1) (Keswani et al., 2019; Abioye et al., 2020; Bwambale et al., 2023). Technologies used in control systems, such as fuzzy logic, deep learning, and model predictive control, can help make more scientific watering decisions, save water and electricity, and increase fruit yields (Kashyap et al., 2021; Bukhari et al., 2024). This IoT platform can also remotely view irrigation conditions, which is very convenient. And no matter where the orchard is located or how large it is, this precision irrigation system can be used (Benzaouia et al., 2023).

Figure 1 Smart water management platform layered architecture (Adopted from Kamienski et al., 2019)

4 Optimization of Fertilization Strategies

4.1 Effect of different N-P-K ratios

Balancing the ratio of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is essential for maximizing fruit tree yield and nutrient use efficiency. Studies have shown that moderate nitrogen (100-300 kg/ha/year) and potassium (50-150 kg/ha/year) levels, combined with high phosphorus (>60 kg/ha/year), can significantly increase soil organic carbon content and crop productivity, while reducing nutrient loss and maintaining soil health (Liu et al., 2023). When using drip irrigation, moderate fertilization is most effective. Moderate fertilization can improve crop absorption of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and also increase yield. Sometimes a slight lack of water can also promote nutrient absorption and protein accumulation (Yan et al., 2020; Deng et al., 2023). If the time and sequence of fertilization are well matched, waste and pollution can be further reduced (Dong et al., 2023).

4.2 Combined use of organic and chemical fertilizers

Although chemical fertilizer alone is effective, the effect will be better if organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer are used together. Studies have suggested that when drip irrigation is used for fruit trees, organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer can each account for half. This can significantly increase the effective nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil, and improve photosynthesis, so that the fruit quality and yield are better (Chen et al., 2023). Organic fertilizer can also make the soil more fertile, help plants absorb nutrients, and reduce ammonia volatilization and nitrate loss, which is particularly evident in drip irrigation systems (Li et al., 2023; Shi et al., 2024). If organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer are used together for a long time, the microorganisms in the soil will be more active and the soil state will be healthier. However, it should be noted that if it is not managed well, there may be a problem of nitrogen deficiency (Cui et al., 2021).

4.3 Integration of water-soluble fertilizers and drip systems

If water-soluble fertilizer is used together with drip irrigation technology, the effect will be more obvious. It can make nutrients delivered faster, use less water, and crops grow better. A study summarized and analyzed the results and found that this "water-fertilizer integration" method can increase nitrogen utilization by 31.3%, water utilization by 34.5%, and yield by 12.5% compared with traditional irrigation methods (Yang et al., 2024). In particular, the underground drip irrigation system with low flow and low nitrogen consumption is most suitable for fruit trees and medium soil. If organic fertilizers and water-soluble fertilizers are used together, it can not only further increase yield and fruit quality, but also make better use of water and fertilizer and reduce damage to the environment.

5 Analysis of Yield and Fruit Quality

5.1 Performance of yield per plant and per area

If irrigation and fertilization methods are well coordinated, especially the use of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) with organic fertilizers, the yield of kiwifruit can be higher. Whether it is the yield of a tree or the yield of an entire orchard, there will be a significant increase. Compared with using only a little nitrogen fertilizer or an unreasonable combination of fertilizers, NPK plus organic fertilizers can increase the yield by about 11.7% to 31.8% (Lai et al., 2011). Some practices such as organic farming and natural farming can also produce similar results. A kiwifruit tree can produce about 30 kilograms of fruit, which is similar to the application of conventional chemical fertilizers. At the critical time of fruit growth, using drip irrigation with a scientific combination of water and fertilizer can not only ensure yield, but also save water and fertilizer.

5.2 Analysis of internal quality traits

Good irrigation and fertilization can not only increase yield, but also improve the internal quality of the fruit. For example, the sugar (soluble solids), acid, and vitamin C in the fruit will all increase. Proper application of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, especially when applied together with organic fertilizers, can increase sugar content by 15% to 45%, and vitamin C by 7% to 19%. When the fruit is growing fast, watering it less appropriately and adding some potassium fertilizer at the same time will also make the sugar-acid ratio better, and can also increase the vitamin C content to about 30% (Zheng et al., 2023). Organic fertilizer management can also make the fruit sugar and vitamin C higher. Under some treatments, vitamin C can reach 81.6 mg/100 g (Sharma et al., 2022).

5.3 Appearance and post-harvest storability

If water and fertilizer are well managed, the appearance of the fruit will also be better. For example, the size is more uniform, the hardness is higher, and the grading is more neat. For example, the right combination of irrigation and fertilization can increase the number of Grade A fruits weighing more than 70 grams, and the fruits can also be 13% to 30% harder (Garg et al., 2023). Such fruits are not only easier to sell, but also easier to store. At critical times, such as when the fruit is about to mature, the right combination of water and fertilizer can make the fruit harder and have higher dry matter. In this way, not only will the shelf life be longer, but it will also be less likely to spoil during transportation (Cui et al., 2023).

6 Case Studies

6.1 Shaanxi Zhouzhi Base: Integration of drip irrigation under mulch with formula fertilization

In Zhouzhi, Shaanxi, local fruit farmers used sub-film drip irrigation plus formula fertilization. This method is more energy-saving and efficient than traditional ground irrigation (Figure 2). Compared with the past, the total energy consumption has dropped from 85.4 GJ per hectare to 72.3 GJ, but the output energy has increased from 59.7 GJ to 62.3 GJ. This shows that this approach is more resource-saving and can increase production. The study also found that fertilizers were used a little too much and wasted. Therefore, it is recommended to reduce the proportion of mineral fertilizers and use more water-fertilizer combination methods, which is more conducive to sustainable development and can also improve production efficiency (Zhang et al., 2023).

Figure 2  Different fertilization methods used in the drip irrigation system of kiwi fruit orchards: (a) drip irrigation + artificial fertilization; (b) drip irrigation + fertigation (Adopted from Zhang et al., 2023)

6.2 Sichuan Pujiang Orchard: Precision use of organic fertilizer with micro-nutrients

The weather in Pujiang, Sichuan is relatively dry. Local fruit farmers tried to use organic fertilizers in the drip irrigation system and combined with trace elements, and the results were very good. They properly controlled the supply of water and fertilizer during the key growth stage of kiwifruit, which made the fruit harder (hardness increased by 15.6%), larger (single fruit weight increased by 9.3%), and the vitamin C content increased by almost 70%. The sugar and soluble solids content also increased, by 17% and 34% respectively. These results show that as long as the water and fertilizer are well managed during the fruit expansion and maturity period, and the right fertilizer is used, the quality of kiwifruit will be greatly improved.

6.3 Zhejiang Huangyan Hills: Effects of fertigation on improving commercial fruit rate

Huangyan, Zhejiang is a hilly area. The local area uses drip irrigation to achieve water and fertilizer integration, that is, fertilizer is delivered at the same time as water is irrigated. This method saves water and labor, and also improves the quality of the fruit. The proportion of A-grade fruit has increased, and the fruit is more durable in storage. This practice not only improves the efficiency of energy and resource utilization, but also drives the commercial output of kiwifruit, which is beneficial to the development of local orchards.

7 Concluding Remarks

When growing kiwifruit, if irrigation and fertilization are well matched, the yield and fruit quality can be greatly improved. For example, in the stage when the fruit grows fast, properly controlling the amount of water, using drip irrigation, and adding an appropriate amount of organic fertilizer can not only make the fruit harder, more suitable in sugar-acid ratio, higher in vitamin C, but also increase the yield and water utilization rate. Long-term use of organic fertilizer can also increase the nutrients in the soil and enrich the types of microorganisms, which is very helpful for the long-term development of the orchard. However, if too much water and fertilizer are used, especially nitrogen fertilizer, it may cause waste and pollute the environment.

These practices can be used in many places. Whether it is a dry place like the southwest, or a Mediterranean climate or humid area, you can try it. As long as the soil moisture content and root water absorption are well managed, the drip irrigation system works in water-scarce or rainy areas. If the soil is fragile or degraded, it is also good to use organic fertilizer and no-till methods, which not only have high yields but also protect the environment. In addition, new technologies such as photovoltaic irrigation are also worth a try, especially in places with sufficient sunshine and suitable terrain, where there are more development prospects.

Future research can also start from several directions. First, we need to figure out the critical point of water and fertilizer shortage in each region and find the most appropriate management method, which will not waste resources and can achieve stable and high yields. Secondly, more advanced technologies can be used, such as soil moisture sensors and nutrient monitoring devices, to make planting more precise. Third, more research should be done on the long-term effects of organic fertilizers and comprehensive fertilization on soil, microorganisms and the entire ecology. Fourth, it is also possible to analyze whether it is cost-effective to use renewable energy for irrigation in different environments. Finally, it is necessary to understand how irrigation, fertilization and climate change affect each other. Only by constantly exploring methods suitable for each place can kiwifruit cultivation be both high-yield and environmentally friendly.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Dr. W. Zhang for this assistance with the serious reading and helpful discussions during the course of this work.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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