1 Introduction

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is native to China and a subtropical evergreen fruit tree that is popular for its early fruiting. As early as the Han Dynasty more than 2000 years ago, loquat had become one of the important fruit trees in southern China. Its fruits usually mature in spring and can enter the market before most fruits are on the market (Cai et al., 2019). Loquat is suitable for growing in places with warmer winters. Its fruits are rich in nutrients, such as sugars, organic acids, and some active substances that are beneficial to the body (Shah et al., 2023). Because of its rich nutrition and good taste, and the increasing popularity of loquats, its economic value has become increasingly high, and it has now become one of the most important fruit varieties in the domestic and international markets.

Zhejiang is the main production area of loquat in China, and Lanxi is one of the three major loquat production areas in Zhejiang, with a loquat planting area of about 1500 hm². Due to the suitable climate, fertile soil, and excellent variety, Lanxi loquat is famous for its beautiful color, tender flesh, sweet and sour taste, and rich flavor. It is a specialty of Lanxi and a Agro-product geographical indication in China.

Unlike most fruit trees that bloom in spring, loquat flowers bloom in autumn and winter, and the fruit does not mature until spring (Peng et al., 2021). This unique flowering time brings new opportunities to growers, but also brings some problems. If the flowering period can be properly adjusted, not only can the fruits grow together, but the yield can also be increased, and the harvest time can be extended, which makes it easier to meet market needs. Now, many researchers are trying to find ways to solve this problem. They have tried some methods, such as cutting off part of the inflorescence, thinning out part of the flower buds, or adjusting environmental conditions and hormone levels in the plant. These practices can make the flowering time more appropriate, and can also make the fruit grow larger and better quality. As long as the flowering period can be regulated well, a more stable supply of high-quality loquat fruit can be achieved, avoiding losses caused by weather changes, and at the same time improving the competitiveness when selling fruit (Nordi et al., 2025).

The goal of this study is to sort out the current research results on the regulation of loquat flowering period and see how these technologies affect the time of fruit ripening. This study will introduce the research on the genes, physiology and planting methods of flowering regulation, and will also talk about the new progress in the molecular mechanism of flowering period regulation. In addition, the effects of these methods on fruit development, ripening process and post-harvest quality will be analyzed. These contents can provide some useful ideas for improving the yield, quality and market timing of loquat.

2 Biological Basis of Flowering and Ripening in Loquat

2.1 Endogenous hormonal control of flowering induction and fruit development

The flowering and fruit development of loquat are regulated by a variety of plant hormones in the body. Studies have found that abscisic acid (ABA), zeatin (ZT) and gibberellin (GA3) can promote flowering, while indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) mainly affects the formation and differentiation of flower buds. During fruit development, IAA is highest in the final stage of fruit growth, but it drops significantly when the fruit begins to change color. The content of gibberellins and cytokinins slowly decreases from the beginning of fruit development. Abscisic acid rises rapidly after the fruit changes color and reaches its highest level when it matures, indicating that it is very important in the process of fruit ripening (Reig et al., 2016b). The changes of these hormones at different stages help loquat to smoothly transition from vegetative growth to flowering and promote the physiological changes required for fruit ripening (Reig et al., 2015).

2.2 Environmental cues influencing floral transition and maturation

Environmental conditions such as light duration and temperature will also significantly affect the flowering and fruit ripening time of loquat. When the daylight duration is short, if exogenous GA3 is applied, it will inhibit the expression of flowering genes, so that flower buds cannot form normally. If the plant is subjected to drought stress before flowering, it will bloom early. But because it will enter a colder season later, this will slow down the development of the fruit and prolong the ripening time (Cuevas et al., 2018). These studies show that loquat is very sensitive to the external environment. By adjusting factors such as light, water and temperature, the timing of flowering and fruiting can be better arranged to make the planting effect more ideal.

2.3 Genetic factors regulating flowering time and fruit set

The flowering process of loquat is also controlled by some key genes. For example, two genes named EjFT1 and EjFT2 work together to regulate flower bud differentiation. EjFT2 responds to light duration and gibberellin signals, while EjFT1 is related to the vegetative growth of the plant (Figure 1). There is also a class of transcription factors called SPL, including EjSPL3, EjSPL4, EjSPL5 and EjSPL9, which also play an important role. They activate downstream genes to allow plants to flower and develop fruits smoothly (Jiang et al., 2019a). In addition, some WOX genes, especially EjWUSa, were found to be related to early flowering (Yu et al., 2022). These genes receive signals from hormones and the environment while regulating the timing of flowering and fruiting, making the whole process more reasonable (Li et al., 2023).

Figure 1  Tissue-specific expression of EjFT1 and EjFT2 (Adopted from Jiang et al., 2025) Image caption: (A) Different tissues from loquat were analyzed. (B-C) Relative expression levels of EjFT1 (B) and EjFT2 (C) in different tissues. Error bars indicating SD from three biological replicates. The β-Actin gene served as an internal control. R, root; S, shoot; L, leaf; LB, leaf bud; FB, flower bud; Fl, flower; and Fr, fruit (Adopted from Jiang et al., 2025)

3 Techniques for Regulating Flowering Period

3.1 Use of growth regulators (e.g., gibberellins, cytokinins)

If you want to regulate the flowering time of loquat, spraying some external plant hormones is an important step. For example, gibberellin (GA3), when sprayed at the right time, can inhibit some key flowering genes, such as EjFT2 and EjSOC1. After these genes are suppressed, flower buds are not easy to form, but will promote plant vegetative growth instead of flowering (Jiang et al., 2020). In addition to gibberellins, there are other hormones that also play a role in regulating flowering. Cytokinins such as zeatin (ZT) and abscisic acid (ABA) are believed to help promote flowering. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) mainly affects the differentiation process of flower buds (Chi et al., 2020). These hormones do not work alone, they need to cooperate with each other to achieve the best effect. When to spray and how much to spray, these must be properly mastered. Only by controlling the time and dosage of medication, the effect of flowering regulation will be more obvious (Jiang et al., 2021).

3.2 Agronomic practices (e.g., pruning, girdling, irrigation control)

Some agronomic operations during planting can also be used to regulate the flowering period and improve the quality of the fruit. For example, cutting off the main inflorescence can promote re-flowering of loquats, which can delay the flowering and fruiting time by 2 to 4 months (Figure 2) (Peng et al., 2022). If the number of flower buds is appropriately reduced, the fruit can grow larger and of better quality. Usually, retaining an appropriate number of buds in each cluster will achieve the best results (Nordi et al., 2025). New practices such as "double-head pruning" can make branches grow stronger and promote better fruit development because it can enhance early cell division in branches (Su et al., 2024). For example, irrigation control, especially irrigation after harvest, can advance the flowering period by 10 to 20 days, which not only does not affect the quality of the fruit, but also can obtain more yields earlier (Hueso and Cuevas, 2008).

Figure 2 The effect of thinning flowers on loquat fruit (Photographed by Jinyang Ma) Image caption: A Before thinning flowers; B Artificial thinning flowers; C After thinning flowers; D Mature fruit after thinning flowers

3.3 Application of exogenous environmental controls (e.g., shading, chilling treatments)

The flowering time of loquat can also be controlled by adjusting light and temperature. When short-day light and GA3 spraying are used together, flower-promoting genes such as EjFT2 and EjSOC1 are inhibited, while the expression of the flower-suppressing gene EjTFL1 is increased, thereby preventing flower bud formation. After flower bud induction, if the temperature rises above 25 °C, EjTFL1 expression will decrease and flowering will be promoted; but if the ambient temperature is low, the plant will continue to grow vegetatively instead of flowering (Reig et al., 2023). These studies show that as long as the temperature and light are well controlled, the flowering time can be arranged according to needs, such as making the flowering period uniform or appropriately delayed.

4 Influence on Fruit Ripening Period and Market Timing

4.1 Shifting harvest windows to avoid market saturation

By adjusting the flowering period of loquat, the ripening time of the fruit can be effectively adjusted, so that growers can avoid the period when there are too many fruits on the market. Methods such as cutting off the main inflorescence can make the tree bloom again, and the fruit will mature 2 to 4 months later than usual. In this way, the harvest period is extended and the fruit can be put on the market when the competition is not too fierce. In addition, by controlling the temperature of the soil, the fruit can be made to mature 8 to 10 days earlier, so that the time to market is more flexible. With these methods, growers can reasonably arrange the time of harvesting and selling according to market conditions and consumer needs.

4.2 Improvement in fruit quality traits (sugar content, texture, appearance)

Flower thinning can significantly improve the quality of loquat fruit. If only four flower buds are retained per bunch of flowers, the fruits that grow out are usually larger, have higher sugar content, and look better. However, if too many flower buds are retained, although the yield increases, the quality of each fruit may deteriorate. In terms of genetics, for example, regulating the EjBZR1 gene can also help cells swell and make the fruit larger, which is also a new way to improve quality (Su et al., 2021). In addition, during the ripening process of the fruit, affected by genetics and planting management, changes in organic acids and some enzymes will affect the taste and texture. These changes also help to form a more ideal flavor (Deng et al., 2023).

4.3 Extension of supply period and enhancement of economic returns

If the flowering and fruiting time of loquats is extended by adjusting the planting method or changing the environmental conditions, the supply time of fresh fruits will also be extended. This can avoid too many loquats appearing in the market at the same time and reduce the price drop caused by oversupply (Reig et al., 2016a). Once the supply period is extended, loquats can stagger the sales peak and sell at a good price in the off-season, which can also increase the income of growers. In addition, if the fruit is of higher quality and larger in size, it will be more easily accepted by consumers and the price can be sold at a better price. In this way, farmers will become more competitive in the market and their income level will become higher (Nordi et al., 2025).

5 Molecular and Genetic Approaches in Flowering Regulation

5.1 Identification of key flowering genes and their regulatory networks

In recent years, scientists have found a number of important genes that affect loquat flowering and the regulatory relationship between them. The most core ones are two genes called EjFT1 and EjFT2, which belong to the "flowering locus T" family. EjFT2 is mainly involved in the formation of flower buds and is also affected by light duration and gibberellins; while EjFT1 is mainly related to vegetative growth and bud germination (Reig et al., 2017). Another gene called EjTFL1 (there are two versions: EjTFL1-1 and EjTFL1-2) prevents flowering and makes the plant more inclined to vegetative growth. This situation is more obvious under short-day conditions and when sprayed with GA3 (Reig et al., 2023). In addition to the above, many other genes are involved in regulating flowering, such as MADS-box genes (EjSOC1s, EjAP1s, EjLFYs), SPL family genes (EjSPL3, EjSPL4, EjSPL5, EjSPL9), and WOX family genes such as EjWUSa, which can promote early flowering of plants (Yu et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023). In addition, the two genes EjRAV1/2 and EjFRI inhibit the expression of flowering-related genes (such as FT and SOC1), thereby delaying flowering. These genes influence each other and integrate external environmental signals with signals in the plant body to finely regulate when to flower.

5.2 Advances in gene editing for targeted flowering time control

Although there are not many studies on the use of CRISPR or other gene editing tools on loquat, there are studies that have used overexpression and other plant systems (such as Arabidopsis and strawberry) to test the functions of these genes. For example, overexpression of EjWUSa, EjSPLs, EjSOC1s, and EjLFY-1 causes plants to flower earlier. This shows that they are positive regulatory genes that promote flowering and can become targets for gene editing in the future (Liu et al., 2017; Jiang et al., 2019a). Conversely, overexpression of EjTFL1s, EjRAVs, and EjFRI causes plants to flower later, which provides new genetic options for those who want to extend the vegetative growth period (Chen et al., 2020). These studies lay the foundation for the future use of molecular breeding and gene editing to control the flowering time of loquat.

5.3 Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses for mechanism elucidation

Behind the flowering of loquat, there are actually many genetic changes involved. These changes sometimes begin before the flower is formed, or they may only appear after external intervention, such as hormone treatment. For example, hormones such as GA3 (gibberellin) will cause many gene expression responses after injection. In the RNA sequencing results, genes such as EjFT, EjSOC1, and EjSPL that promote flowering will be activated, while inhibitors such as EjDELLA may be suppressed (An et al., 2021). Of course, not all loquat varieties are the same. Some varieties are born to bloom early, while others are late, and the difference can be seen by comparing the transcriptome. In early-flowering varieties, the effects of abscisic acid (ABA) signals and certain transcription factors on flower bud formation are more obvious (Xia et al., 2020). In addition to these, there are also many gains in proteomics research. Gene families such as MADS-box and WOX have been studied in other fruit trees before, and are now found to be closely related to flower and fruit development in loquat (Jiang et al., 2019b). These genes may not work alone, but their combination just fills the puzzle pieces of flowering regulation. In the final analysis, these "omics" tools are actually like microscopes, allowing us to see deeper and more detailed, and thus get closer to the true appearance of loquat flowering mechanism. However, the deeper the study, the more we will find that this system is not that simple.

6 Environmental and Climatic Considerations

6.1 Impact of climate change on flowering and ripening synchronization

Temperature is an important factor affecting the flowering and fruit ripening of loquat. During the flower bud conversion period, if the temperature rises above 25 °C, the expression of the gene EjTFL1 that inhibits flowering will be reduced, resulting in easy flowering; but if the temperature is low, the plant will continue to grow vegetatively, and the flowering time will be delayed (Reig et al., 2023). Climate change will make this situation more complicated. The weather is getting hotter and hotter now, with fewer cold days and more extreme high temperature days. Although this can reduce the loss caused by frost, it is also more likely to cause heat damage to the fruit when it matures. These changes will affect the coordination of flowering and fruit development, making their timing less synchronized (Jiang et al., 2015). In addition, water stress has become more common under climate change. Drought may cause loquat to bloom earlier, but it may also delay the development of the fruit to a colder period, so that the fruit matures more slowly (Cuevas et al., 2018).

6.2 Regional differences in response to regulation strategies

Climate conditions vary from place to place, so the same regulation method will have different effects in different places. Areas like Lishui, China, have good sunlight, suitable temperatures, sufficient water sources, and less frost, continuous rain, and high temperatures, making them ideal areas for growing high-quality loquats. But the situation is different in mountainous areas. In these places, frost may often occur during the young fruit stage, and high temperatures are also prone to occur during the ripening stage, so more flexible and locally appropriate management measures must be adopted. Some Japanese studies have made prediction models for different regions, and the results show that there will be significant differences in the flowering time and fruit development speed in different regions. This also shows that to do a good job of flowering regulation, you have to adjust the method according to local climate data (Konno et al., 2020).

6.3 Risk mitigation strategies under variable environmental conditions

Not all loquat planting areas can easily cope with sudden changes in weather, especially when environmental changes are increasing. Sometimes, relying on experience alone is no longer effective. For example, irrigation depends on the situation. Water-saving irrigation sounds good and can promote flowering and fruit ripening, but if the amount of water is not well controlled, it will affect the development of the fruit and even make the taste worse (Jiménez et al., 2022). Therefore, when to water and how much to water is not necessarily the more the better. There is also the issue of choosing a place to plant. Not everywhere is suitable. Valleys or small basins with stable climates are less likely to experience frost or extreme high temperatures, and are safer choices. Mountainous or windy areas, although the soil is good, are more likely to encounter sudden changes in weather and unstable yields. As for temperature, soil management can also come in handy. If the ground temperature can be raised in advance, the fruit can also mature 8 to 10 days earlier. This not only allows for earlier picking, but also increases the chances of avoiding bad weather (Reig et al., 2016a). Finally, don't forget that "living by the weather" can actually be supported by data. Many people have started to use temperature data to build models to predict flowering and maturity in advance. Although it may not be 100% accurate, it can at least let people know how to arrange it earlier, so as not to wait until things happen before cramming.

7 Case Study in China

7.1 Loquat production challenges and climate characteristics

Growing loquats in China is not always an easy task, especially when the weather is unpredictable. Take Lishui, Zhejiang, for example. The area usually has enough heat and rainfall, but problems often occur during the young fruit stage. Frosts come and go, and in some years, they even freeze for ten consecutive days (Figure 3) (Jiang et al., 2022). The situation in mountainous areas is even more complicated. Not only are they prone to frost in early spring, but they may also encounter high temperatures when the fruits are about to ripen. Research data also mentioned that the three key periods of flowering, young fruit and ripening can withstand temperatures of -5℃, -3℃ and 30℃, respectively. If they exceed these temperatures, accidents are likely to occur. Guangdong is more detailed, and risk areas prone to high temperatures, frost and fruit wilting have been marked. In the final analysis, the significance of these zoning maps is actually to remind everyone: Don't plant blindly, but see if the local climate is suitable. In addition, sudden drops in temperature, continuous heavy rains, or long periods of cold air are also common in some production areas in northern China. These extreme weather events affect people every year, and many cases of crop yield reduction occur (Wang et al., 2009).

Figure 3 Spatial distribution of climatic mean frozen injury days (FID) during loquat young fruit period over Lishui (Adopted from Jiang et al., 2022)

7.2 Techniques used to manipulate flowering and results

When it comes to how to deal with these weather challenges, some people have actually already started. The most basic point is to first pick out places suitable for growing loquats. Places like river valleys and basins with sufficient sunlight, abundant water resources, and stable climate are naturally more reliable than other places, and there is less frost and heat damage. In addition to the trick of "choosing the right place", technical matters have not been left behind. For example, 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), which is commonly used now, is used to enhance the plant's resistance to cold. This substance can increase the activity of GST enzymes and enhance the plant's own antioxidant level. Simply put, it can freeze less (Huang et al., 2024). Of course, hormones alone are not enough. Many places are also trying to cultivate more cold-resistant varieties or adjust the daily management methods of orchards. Things like cold-proof cloth, reasonable pruning, and irrigation rhythm may seem ordinary, but if used correctly, they can also help loquats survive bad weather (Zhang et al., 2022).

7.3 Shifts in harvest timing, yield performance, and farmer adoption

Farmers in some suitable areas have achieved good results by choosing planting sites and using planting techniques that are more suitable for the climate. Their yields are more stable and the quality of the fruit has improved. These methods also help adjust the harvest time so that loquats can mature away from frost or high temperature peaks. This not only reduces losses but also improves the stability of market supply (Jiang et al., 2015). These practices are most effective in some places with good natural conditions, such as Yingde City and Fengshun County in Guangdong, where the climate and soil are very suitable for loquat cultivation (Qiu et al., 2009). Now, more and more farmers are willing to use growth regulators and cold-resistant varieties, which not only makes their crops more resistant to adversity but also brings better economic benefits.

8 Future Directions and Technological Innovations

8.1 Integration of precision agriculture and remote sensing for monitoring phenology

Many new agricultural tools are now being used to help grow loquats. Among them, precision agriculture technologies, such as remote sensing and environmental monitoring, have become a good way to monitor the flowering time of loquats and adjust flowering management. Some places have already used controlled environments, such as greenhouse cultivation, and combined with temperature and light regulation. This method can advance the harvest period of loquats by up to two months, indicating that there is great potential after the combination of technologies (Wang and Huang, 2010). In addition, by installing sensors and combining data analysis, the development of flower buds, flowering and fruiting can be monitored in real time. These data can help farmers take timely measures and help predict yields, making production arrangements more scientific.

8.2 Development of loquat varieties with flexible flowering potential

The idea of making loquats bloom flexibly according to weather and market changes has actually been proposed more than once. However, the current breeding methods are more advanced than before, and the confidence to do this is also stronger. For example, researchers have found some key genes related to flowering. EjFT1, EjFT2, EjSPLs, EjTFL1s, EjWUSa-although these names are not easy to remember, they play a significant role (Jiang et al., 2019a). It does not mean that once new technologies are available, the problem can be solved immediately, but at least the direction is clear. The development of molecular breeding and gene editing, coupled with the addition of transcriptomes and proteomes, has given scientists the opportunity to "customize" new varieties with more flexible flowering times and easier management (Li et al., 2023). Interestingly, the regulation direction of some genes is the opposite. For example, SPL and WOX can make loquat bloom earlier, while TFL1 can make it bloom later and extend the vegetative growth period (Yu et al., 2022). So whether to adjust early or late depends on demand. In the final analysis, breeding varieties that can adapt to different climates and catch up with the market rhythm is not something that can be achieved overnight, but it is no longer a difficult problem technically.

8.3 Prospects for sustainable, low-input flowering control methods

Not all problems need to be solved by spraying. This statement is actually quite appropriate when applied to the regulation of loquat flowering. What many people are concerned about now is: Is there a way to regulate flowering without too much investment and make the fruit grow better? The answer is that some methods have been proposed. For example, appropriately cut off some inflorescences, or use some new pruning methods. These seemingly simple actions have actually been proven to be effective in many experiments: they can affect flowering, extend the production period, and make the fruit larger (Su et al., 2024). Of course, it is not just traditional operations such as pruning that work. Research on the hormone regulation mechanism of loquat itself is also advancing. Now everyone knows more about which hormones affect flowering and when, and which genes are involved. Once this kind of information is thoroughly understood, low-cost solutions can be developed that do not rely on external chemical agents but are based on the plant's own regulatory ability. These methods may seem simple, but they can indeed reduce dependence on synthetic regulators, not only saving money, but also being more environmentally friendly. For growers, they can save trouble and cost while improving planting efficiency, and are indeed worth promoting.

9 Concluding Remarks

When and how loquats bloom, people no longer just rely on experience to judge. Researchers have spent a lot of effort, starting from the genetic level. Like EjFT1, EjFT2, EjTFL1, EjSOC1, plus some MADS-box and SPL family transcription factors, these names are not easy to remember, but they do play an important role in this matter. However, knowing the genes is not enough, and the means of regulation must also keep up. Spraying gibberellin (GA3), adjusting the light time, and cutting the inflorescences-these sound like old methods, but in fact they have been proven to be effective in many experiments, and can make loquats bloom earlier or later. In this way, there is a choice of fruit ripening time, and the entire production cycle can be extended. On the other hand, molecular research and "omics" analysis are also not idle, providing many new perspectives to help us understand the details of these regulatory mechanisms more clearly. The more detailed the research, the more targeted the regulation, and the loquats grown are not only of stable quality and accurate time, but also more adaptable.

Of course, it is easier said than done. It is not easy to get these technologies out of the laboratory. For example, gene regulation seems to be an ideal solution, but the results are often different in the actual environment. The temperature suddenly changes, the rain falls more, and the spring cold comes early-these may disrupt the plan. Sometimes even if the regulator is used, the flowers still fail to bloom as expected. In addition, the growth cycle of loquat is long. It takes several years from seedling to fruit. Want to quickly verify the effect of new varieties? Not so fast. Even if researchers have a direction, the breeding cycle is still very long, not to mention promotion. At present, finding a low-cost and environmentally friendly method may be a more realistic goal. Hormone regulation is certainly effective, but if we can better understand how hormones in plants work with environmental signals, we may be able to use less drugs and save labor.

Future work will not only continue to explore those key genes (such as EjFTs, EjTFL1s, EjSOC1s and SPLs), but also speed up the pace of technologies such as gene editing and molecular markers. As for planting management, it cannot be stereotyped. Different regions have different climates, so there should be different plans-how to use regulators, how much inflorescence to cut, and which plot of land to plant should all be determined according to the local conditions. Finally, don't forget that precision agricultural tools are no longer new. Real-time monitoring and dynamic adjustment will gradually become routine operations. In the final analysis, flowering seems simple, but it is a matter of many things. Anyone who wants to grow loquats well needs to work harder.

Acknowledgments

I thank the anonymous reviewers for critically reading the manuscript and providing specific comments that strengthened the coherence of the article.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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