1 Introduction

Rapeseed (Brassica napus) is a valuable crop for biodiesel production due to its high oil content and excellent agronomic characteristics. As one of the most important oil crops in the world, rapeseed is widely grown for the production of edible oil, animal feed, and increasingly for biodiesel (Abbadi and Leckband, 2011; Xiong et al., 2022). The development of 00-type rapeseed (i.e., "double-low rapeseed", also known as rapeseed oil) has greatly enhanced its potential for application in food and non-food markets, including biofuels (Abbadi and Leckband, 2011). In regions with suitable climatic conditions, such as Iran, optimized genotypes (such as TERI (OE) R-983) have shown great potential for biodiesel production (Almasi et al., 2019). Rapeseed oil is high in yield and excellent in quality, making it a preferred feedstock for biodiesel. Biodiesel is a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels that can be produced from renewable resources (Lovasz et al., 2023; Tanner et al., 2023).

Crude oil has long been the main source of energy and fuel, and is widely used in the production of traditional fuels such as petroleum diesel. However, since the 1970s, people have become increasingly concerned about the sustainability of crude oil resources, its price fluctuations, and its negative impact on the environment. Influenced by this, bio-oil and its derived biodiesel fuel have gradually become potential substitutes for crude oil and petroleum diesel in recent years. Although petroleum diesel is still widely used, the application of biodiesel in fields such as transportation and electricity is continuing to expand. In particular, the first generation of biodiesel based on edible oil has aroused great public interest. Among them, rapeseed oil-based biodiesel (ROBD) has become one of the most widely used edible oil-based biodiesel fuels due to its high production and market share (Rashid and Anwar, 2008; Almasi et al., 2019).

This research aims to explore and optimize the various factors that affect rapeseed oil yield to improve the sustainability of biodiesel production. The main objectives include evaluating the effects of different agricultural practices (such as fertilization and genotype selection) on rapeseed yield and oil content. In addition, advanced processing technologies will be studied to maximize the efficiency of oil extraction and biodiesel conversion, and by integrating environmental and economic performance assessments, we will strive to fully understand the potential for optimizing rapeseed biodiesel production. The research scope ranges from field agricultural practices to industrial processing methods to provide best practices for identifying higher yields and better quality biodiesel, and to promote biodiesel production in a sustainable manner.

2 Genetic Improvements for Higher Oil Content

2.1 Advances in breeding techniques

Traditional breeding techniques, such as hybridization and mutation breeding, have long been used to increase the oil content of rapeseed. These methods have led to the development of improved varieties through multiple generations of selection for superior traits. For example, rapeseed lines with high oleic acid and low linolenic acid content were developed using the chemical mutagen ethyl methane sulfonic acid (EMS), but these lines initially showed low agronomic value. These lines were further optimized by marker-assisted selection, combining good oil quality with high agronomic value, showing the great potential of traditional breeding methods when combined with modern genetic tools (Spasibionek et al., 2020).

2.2 Identification of key yield-related genes

Recent studies have identified some key genes that significantly affect seed oil content (SOC) and yield-related traits. For example, the seed fatty acid reductase (SFAR) gene has been shown to play a key role in SOC and fatty acid composition. Targeted mutagenesis of these genes using CRISPR-Cas9 significantly increased SOC without adversely affecting seed germination and vigor (Karunarathna et al., 2020). In addition, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified many quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) associated with yield-related traits such as silique number, number of seeds per silique, and thousand-grain weight. Combining GWAS with transcriptome analysis has further located candidate genes such as RNA helicase and lipase that affect these traits, providing valuable targets for genetic improvement (Zhang et al., 2023).

2.3 Application of genomic selection and CRISPR-Cas9

The advent of CRISPR-Cas9 technology has greatly revolutionized the field of genetic improvement of rapeseed. This precise genome editing tool can target specific genes for modification, thereby accelerating the breeding process. For example, the BnFAD2 gene was successfully edited using CRISPR-Cas9, significantly increasing the seed oleic acid content (Liu et al., 2022). Similarly, this technology has also been used to knock out multiple homologous genes in the BnLPAT2 and BnLPAT5 gene families, which are involved in oil biosynthesis, thereby increasing oil yield (Zhang et al., 2019). In addition, CRISPR-Cas9 has also been used to develop glyphosate-resistant rapeseed varieties by modifying the EPSPS gene, demonstrating its versatility in simultaneously addressing yield and quality traits (Wang et al., 2021). Despite technical challenges such as off-target effects and gene redundancy in polyploid species such as Brassica napus, continuous improvements in CRISPR technology are continuously improving its efficiency and applicability (Figure 1) (Sandgrind, 2022; Tian et al., 2022; Ali and Zhang, 2023).

3 Agronomic Practices Enhancing Oil Yield

3.1 Soil and nutrient management

Effective soil and nutrient management are key to optimizing rapeseed oil production. Studies have shown that the application of biochar can significantly improve soil fertility, including increasing soil pH, available phosphorus, organic carbon, and water retention capacity, thereby increasing rapeseed yield. However, these benefits will gradually weaken over time, so continuous soil management is required (Jin et al., 2019). In addition, the balanced application of fertilizers such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, and boron can significantly increase dry matter accumulation and seed oil content, thereby increasing total yield and economic benefits (Tian et al., 2020). In acidic soils, the application of lime and trace elements such as zinc, boron, and molybdenum can also improve soil properties and productivity by improving soil pH, organic carbon content, and nutrient supply (Tanner et al., 2023).

China has achieved significant results with international influence in the field of rapeseed genome research. Through cooperation with international research institutions, China has completed the whole genome sequencing of Brassica napus and its two parent species, Brassica oleracea and Brassica rapa, and annotated 44 940 genes in Brassica oleracea, 41 174 genes in Brassica rapa, and more than 100 000 genes in Brassica rapa. These results not only reveal the complex genome structure and evolutionary characteristics of rapeseed, but also provide rich resources for in-depth research on gene function. In addition, the 60K Infinium SNP chip jointly developed by Chinese and foreign research teams has also provided important technical support for global rapeseed genetic improvement and molecular breeding (Liu et al., 2015).

In terms of functional genomics research, Chinese researchers have made significant progress in a number of key agronomic traits, including yield, oil content, fertility regulation, disease and pest resistance, stress resistance, nutrient use efficiency, and resistance to grain shattering. Several key genes have been successfully identified and cloned, such as the genes BnaA.ARF18.a and BnaC9.SMG7b that simultaneously regulate grain weight and the number of grains per pod, SHB1 and HAIKU2 that affect grain weight, and transcription factors LEC1 and WRI1 that regulate oil accumulation. In addition, the important role of maternal tissues such as pod walls and seed coats, as well as cytoplasmic effects in regulating oil content, has been discovered, and key genes related to these processes such as GRF2 and ORF188 have been identified.

3.2 Optimized planting densities and irrigation practices

Optimizing planting density and irrigation measures is another important factor in increasing rapeseed oil production. Field experiments have shown that increasing planting density and combining it with appropriate fertilization can significantly increase dry matter accumulation and seed oil content (Tian et al., 2020). In addition, water-saving technologies such as straw mulching and ridge-ditch rainwater collection can significantly improve water use efficiency and nutrient absorption under variable climatic conditions. These measures not only increase yields, but also improve oil content by reducing nutrient loss during the rainy season and improving soil moisture during the dry season (Feng et al., 2020).

3.3 Integrated pest and disease management

Rapeseed crops are attacked by six major pests that growers usually need to control to ensure rapeseed yields. Common pests are the rapeseed stem flea beetle, pollen beetle, rapeseed weevil, rapeseed stem weevil, rapeseed stem weevil and Brassica pod midge. These pests will attack crops at different growth stages and damage different parts of the plant. They are widely distributed, but their relative importance varies from country to country and year to year. Currently, their control still relies mainly on chemical pesticides, which are usually used for prevention. Pollen beetles have developed widespread resistance to the main insecticides currently used - pyrethroids - which increases the urgency of finding alternative control strategies (Yang et al., 2020; Das et al., 2023). In the past decade, researchers have made great progress in understanding the parasitic wasps, predators and pathogens involved in pest biological control, and how to incorporate biological control into integrated pest management systems. The use of economic thresholds, crop monitoring, and computer-based decision support systems can more effectively target pesticides in time and space. “Push and pull” strategies are being developed to use host plant preferences and their behavioral responses to pheromones to influence the distribution of pests and natural enemies on crops. In addition, natural enemies can be protected by changing crop cultivation practices in the field, and vegetation diversity in agricultural ecosystems can be promoted through habitat and environmental adjustments at the landscape scale, such as planting hedgerows, cover crops, flowering protective headlands, and field edges to provide shelter, food, overwintering sites, and alternative prey or hosts for natural enemies (Zhang et al., 2020).

4 Case Study: Implementing Precision Agriculture for Rapeseed Yield Optimization

4.1 Background and selection of study area

Rapeseed yields have increased rapidly in recent decades, and given this development trend, a question is how to promote yield growth through integrated nitrogen fertilizer management strategies. The economic benefits of winter rapeseed cultivation mainly depend on the available seed yield and, to a lesser extent, on oil content. The yield formation process varies greatly and depends on genetic, environmental and agronomic factors and their interactions. The yield potential of a crop is a theoretical assessment of the maximum yield that a high-yielding biological material can produce when grown under optimal physicochemical conditions (Almasi et al., 2019; Esmaeilpour-Troujeni et al., 2021).

4.2 High-density planting for increased yield

Although manual transplanting of strong seedlings at low planting density accounts for a large proportion of conventional rapeseed production, high-density planting is impossible in this model, owing to the heavy workload. With the current increase of mechanization in rapeseed production, manual transplanting has been much reduced because of the scarcity of labor. Direct sowing makes the planting density uncontrollable under variable soil conditions. For this reason, high-density planting tends to be common owing to the impracticality of seedling thinning. Besides increasing plant leaf area index and light energy use efficiency, high-density planting can improve nitrogen use efficiency, promote the transformation of nitrogen to grain, and thus increase yield. High-density planting can also improve the uniformity of the rapeseed population, making stems thinner, branches shorter, and maturation more synchronized, leading to marked reductions in seed loss during mechanical harvesting and increased oil content (Lovasz et al., 2023). Several studies have shown that rapeseed was more likely to achieve high yield in high-density plantings. The optimum planting density is usually 30~60×10⁴ plants/ha. The highest yield was achieved at a plant density of 45×104 plants/ha in combination with a narrow row spacing of 15 cm. Rapeseed breeding for high planting density should focus on increasing silique density and number of siliques on the main inflorescence, as well as number of siliques per plant and seeds per pod (Esmaeilpour-Troujeni et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020).

4.3 Measured improvements in oil yield and resource efficiency

The implementation of these precision agriculture technologies has significantly improved oil yield and resource utilization efficiency. For example, under optimized conditions, the yield was increased by 24.55% by reducing the consumption of irrigation water, electricity and fungicides while increasing the use of chemical fertilizers and farmyard manure. Rapeseed yield ranged from 13.3 to 47.0 q/ha, and oil yield ranged from 629.8 to 2 130.8 L/ha, with the effect of high-dose fertilizer application being statistically significant. These improvements are also reflected in sustainability indicators, with the comprehensive degree of perfection (CDP) and renewability index (RI) increasing to 2.75 and 0.81, respectively, under optimal conditions (Figure 2) (Lovasz et al., 2023; Esmaeilpour-Troujeni et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2019).

4.4 Economic and environmental impacts

Economic analysis shows that optimized precision farming techniques not only increase yields, but also improve the economic viability of rapeseed for biodiesel production. Financial support from agricultural policies (such as the EU Common Agricultural Policy) has played a key role in promoting sustainable practices. Environmental assessments show that pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced, and rapeseed oil-based biodiesel has lower CO and particulate matter emissions than conventional diesel. Studies have highlighted the importance of sustainable agricultural practices (such as conservation agriculture) in ensuring long-term economic and environmental benefits (Ganev et al., 2021; Viccaro et al., 2019; Saqib et al., 2012).

5 Post-Harvest Processing for Maximum Oil Recovery

5.1 Advances in mechanical extraction

Mechanical extraction technology has made significant progress in improving efficiency and sustainability. Traditional methods often involve multiple steps and consume a lot of energy, but recent innovations have simplified the process. For example, a novel method is able to produce biodiesel directly from whole rapeseed through a single-step mechanical processing without the use of catalysts (Tanner et al., 2023). This method reduces environmental impact by reducing the use of water and solvents, not only simplifies the extraction process, but also improves the overall yield and quality of the oil, making it a more viable option for large-scale biodiesel production.

5.2 Role of solvent extraction and enzymatic processes

Solvent extraction and enzymatic processes play a vital role in maximizing oil recovery. In particular, when solvent extraction is combined with enzymatic processes, oil yields can be significantly increased. For example, the use of mineral diesel as an extraction solvent in an in situ transesterification process has been shown to be very effective (Santaraite et al., 2020; Sendžikienė et al., 2022). This approach eliminates the step of separate oil extraction, thereby saving energy and reducing costs. In addition, a lipase-catalyzed process using mixed waste frying oil and rapeseed oil has been shown to increase fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yields, highlighting the potential for cost-effective and efficient biodiesel production (Azócar et al., 2010).

5.3 Quality control for biodiesel feedstock

Ensuring the quality of biodiesel feedstock is essential to produce high-quality biodiesel that meets industry standards. Quality control measures include monitoring the physical and chemical properties of oils and their biodiesel products. Studies have shown that biodiesel produced using rapeseed oil can generally meet the stringent standards in Europe and the United States (Rashid and Anwar, 2008; Lovasz et al., 2023). Parameters such as density, kinematic viscosity, and sulfur content are key to assessing the suitability of biodiesel for engine use. In addition, by optimizing reaction conditions (such as catalyst concentration and reaction temperature), the quality and yield of biodiesel can be further improved, ensuring that it becomes a viable alternative to traditional diesel fuel (Yuan et al., 2008; Saqib et al., 2012).

6 Sustainability Considerations in Rapeseed Oil Production

6.1 Environmental impacts of rapeseed cultivation

Rapeseed cultivation has significant impacts on multiple environmental categories, including global warming, acidification, and eutrophication. Fertilizer use and its associated soil emissions are the main causes of these impacts. For example, soil carbon changes caused by different agricultural practices are particularly important in the global warming impacts of rapeseed biodiesel (Ganev et al., 2021). In addition, emissions from rapeseed cultivation are the main contributors to global and regional environmental impact categories, among which rapeseed biodiesel has greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduced by about 56% to 71% compared with fossil fuels (Herrmann et al., 2013). However, the environmental burden of rapeseed cultivation is still quite significant, which requires careful management of agricultural practices to mitigate these impacts.

6.2 Carbon footprint analysis of rapeseed-based biodiesel

The carbon footprint of rapeseed biodiesel is an important factor in assessing its sustainability. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have shown that the production and use of rapeseed biodiesel significantly reduces carbon emissions compared to traditional fossil fuels. For example, the climate change potential of biodiesel production and use is 57 kg CO₂ equivalent per 1,000 km driven, compared to 214 kg CO₂ equivalent for petroleum diesel (Malça et al., 2014). In addition, replacing traditional products with bio-based materials, such as using biofumigants instead of chemical fumigants, can achieve a net saving of 134 g CO₂ equivalent per megajoule of biodiesel (Tanner et al., 2023). These research results highlight the potential of rapeseed biodiesel in reducing carbon emissions.

6.3 Strategies for minimizing waste and enhancing circularity

To improve the sustainability of rapeseed oil production, strategies to reduce waste and promote recycling are essential. One approach is to optimize the utilization of by-products in the biodiesel supply chain. For example, the value-added utilization of oilseed meal as animal feed or biofumigant can significantly improve the sustainability of the bioenergy supply chain (Lovasz et al., 2023). In addition, innovative production methods, such as producing biodiesel directly from whole rapeseed without the addition of catalysts, can reduce the demand for water, organic solvents and catalysts, thereby reducing environmental pollutants (Tanner et al., 2023). Another strategy is to adopt conservation agriculture practices, such as crop diversification and minimum tillage, which can promote sustainable biofuel production and reduce environmental impacts (Figure 3) (Yang et al., 2021). Together, these strategies promote a more sustainable and circular rapeseed oil production system.

7 Global Trends and Market Opportunities

7.1 Rapeseed oil production in key biodiesel markets

Rapeseed oil is an important feedstock in biodiesel production, especially in Europe, where it is the main source. Rapeseed cultivation has grown significantly in regions with favorable climatic conditions, such as Iran, where yields and efficiency have been improved by optimizing production processes (Almasi et al., 2019). In high-altitude regions such as the Qinghai Plateau in China, unique environmental conditions contribute to higher yields, making these regions key players in rapeseed oil production (Xiong et al., 2022). However, the energy efficiency of rapeseed oil biodiesel production varies significantly across Europe, with energy losses in some regions, indicating the need for technological improvements to increase its feasibility (Duren et al., 2019).

7.2 Policy incentives and challenges

The European Union has implemented directives requiring at least 10% of energy consumption in the transport sector to come from renewable sources by 2020 (Herrmann et al., 2013). This policy framework supports the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices and provides economic incentives for small-scale biofuel production, such as in Italy, by promoting conservation agriculture to ensure economic viability and sustainability (Viccaro et al., 2019). However, some challenges remain, such as the environmental and economic impacts of large-scale biodiesel production, which may be exacerbated by climate events such as droughts, thus affecting crop yields and supply stability (Yang et al., 2021). In addition, high initial investment costs and the need for efficient supply chain management have become significant barriers to the widespread adoption of biodiesel (Viccaro et al., 2019).

7.3 Future prospects in sustainable energy

Rapeseed oil has a promising future in biodiesel production, with current research focused on optimizing production processes and increasing crop yields. Innovative technologies, including ultrasound-assisted biodiesel production and enzyme-catalyzed in situ transesterification, are being explored to improve efficiency and reduce environmental impact (Almasi et al., 2019). In addition, the development of high-yielding rapeseed varieties through advanced breeding techniques and the exploration of planting methods in special ecological environments are expected to further promote yield increases (Abbadi and Leckband, 2011; Xiong et al., 2022). As policy frameworks continue to evolve to support sustainable practices and technological advances, rapeseed oil is expected to play an important role in the transition to renewable energy and contribute to environmental sustainability and energy security.

8 Conclusion

Due to the rising demand for energy, limited fossil fuel resources, and environmental issues, the development of alternative energy sources to replace traditional fossil fuels has become increasingly attractive in recent years. Biodiesel fuel extracted from vegetable oils or animal fats is one of the promising potential sources to replace traditional diesel and has a favorable impact on the environment.

Future research should focus on further optimizing fertilization strategies to balance yield with environmental impact, as excessive use of fertilizers may lead to ecological problems. In addition, exploring the use of alternative, more sustainable catalysts and reaction conditions may further improve the efficiency and environmental friendliness of the biodiesel production process. Studying the effects of long-term biodiesel use on engine performance and emissions, especially in comparison with conventional diesel, will provide valuable insights for the widespread application of biodiesel.

Diesel is widely used in transportation, agriculture, commerce, households and industry for electricity generation/mechanical energy. Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel made from vegetable oils and animal fats and is expected to be an environmentally friendly diesel alternative. In recent years, biodiesel has received widespread attention from countries around the world due to its availability, renewability, non-toxicity, low emissions and biodegradability. The properties of this fuel are similar to diesel produced from crude oil. The main advantages of using biodiesel are that it is biodegradable, can be used without modifying existing engines, and produces lower emissions of harmful gases such as sulfur oxides. Among vegetable oils, rapeseed oil and soybean oil have been successfully demonstrated as potential oils for the production of biodiesel. Rapeseed oil is extracted from cabbage seeds planted after the rice harvest, which can make full use of idle land.

By utilizing readily biodegradable and renewable feedstocks, biodiesel promotes sustainable waste management practices and effectively converts waste resources into valuable energy. This innovative approach not only helps reduce dependence on finite fossil fuels, but also helps build a more sustainable circular economy. Waste-based biodiesel has the potential to address energy and waste management challenges and become a key factor in building a greener future. In summary, the global energy crisis, environmental pollution, and health issues associated with over-reliance on petroleum-based products have made the exploration of alternative fuels necessary. Biodiesel derived from waste materials is a promising renewable, biodegradable, and non-toxic fuel option. This review comprehensively describes the advantages, challenges and potential for sustainable development of rapeseed as a fuel.

Rapeseed has been widely recognized as an efficient and sustainable biodiesel feedstock, providing a renewable alternative to traditional fossil fuels. Countries are constantly working to optimize rapeseed cultivation management and production processes, and it has great potential in biodiesel production in terms of high yield, high quality, and compliance with international standards. With the increasing global demand for clean energy, rapeseed-based biodiesel is expected to play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and reducing dependence on non-renewable energy. Continuously advancing research and technological development in this field will be an important support for maximizing the value of rapeseed oil and building a more sustainable energy system.

Acknowledgments

The author sincerely thanks Dr. Chen for carefully reviewing the initial draft of the manuscript and providing detailed revision suggestions. The author also extends deep gratitude to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions on the initial draft of this study.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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